Martha E Rogers

An easygoing event, she imparted her birthday to Florence Nightingale brought into the world 94 years prior and had spent away four years prior. They will share in excess of a birthrate as we will see later specifically the job of the nursing as unmistakable from medication. One is helping nature while nursing places the patient in the best condition for nature to act 3 Martha was conceived in a family which esteemed instruction and since the beginning she was an enthusiastic peruser provoking herself to peruse up to five books a week.She was an ardent student too with no delay for the harder classes, for example, math and variable based math. She ran in the main sex issue then as she was the main lady in that class. She needed to put her learning abilities and information towards commitment to social government assistance faltering among law and medication and in the end picking the later. She began in pre-prescription at the University of Tennessee (1931) yet pulled back in 1933 un der the weight this was not a vocation considered reasonable for a lady. This was even advised her by her parents.She in the end got a certificate from the Knoxville General Hospital School of Nursing in 1936. Regardless of her being valedictorian of her group, her folks were troubled she didn't have a degree and selected the George Peabody College in Nashville where she earned a Bachelor of Science in Public Health Nursing in 1937. After graduation, she worked for the Children's Fund of Michigan as general wellbeing attendant. Her work included home visits, case discovering giving immunizations, arranging and giving wellbeing instructing programs.She then chose to advance her training by going into a Master program at Columbians Teacher's College in New York in 1939. She would graduate in 1945 having worked at the Visiting Nurse Association in Hartford CT coming full circle her contribution there as acting Director of Education. Upon graduation in 1945, she took the situation of of ficial executive of the Phoenix Visiting Nurse Association in Arizona. A scholarly she required a â€Å"educational insurgency in nursing'6 that separated college degree from professional preparing grounded in hypothetical knowledge.This scholarly interest drove her to another Master in Public Health in 1952 from the John Hopkins University, the chief wellbeing program in the US. She proceeded to procure a Doctor of Science qualification (Sad) in 1954, with a carnival like a PhD, subsequently getting one of the not very many attendants holding a doctoral program. Her view on what the necessities for medical caretakers ought to be which had driven her to her quest for scholastic accomplishments was compensated with the situation of teacher of Nursing and leader of the Division of Nursing a New York University in 1954.In her brain, nursing was not a professional school but rather required the extension of educational program with hypothesis based inclining and a four year certificati on in scientific studies program. It is during this period that she built up another hypothesis †the study of unitary people, composing three books Educational Revolution in Nursing (1961), Reveille in Nursing (1964) and An Introduction to the Theoretical Basis of Nursing (1970). This last book denoted the start of another period in nursing.She distinguished the focal point of nursing worries by understanding the significance of examining people and their surroundings as a final unitary entire and that individuals are more than and unique in relation to the whole of their parts. I don't profess to comprehend all that it means and I have followed the introduction by an am of understudies from Northern Arizona University in nursing who introduced this as a last undertaking to their group. She proposed a theoretical framework which is included four key ideas: Energy handle: the crucial unit of life.Openness: there are no limits to forestall the progression of vitality among human and natural vitality fields accommodating the nonstop development of issue and vitality. Example: recognizing attributes of the field that mirrors the dynamic difference in nature and man's inventive completeness. Dish dimensionality: non straight area without spatial or time sensitive attributes, the meeting up of n limitless number of measurements. These four ideas are the structure hinders that develop the three logical standards of homeostasis which proposes an approach to see the unitary human being.Integrally: The human vitality handle that are commonly and consistently transforming: we influence our condition and it influences us †reflection or music can advance a positive human condition. Reverberation: from the field of material science. The steady difference in the manner designs from higher to bring down recurrence †the progression of vitality among individuals and everything in their general surroundings. Should be possible through human touch, talking, drawing , narrating or any dynamic utilization of imagination.Helical: any little change in any ecological field causes far reaching influence which makes bigger changes in different fields; the ceaseless development of progress that outcomes from the collaboration of human condition fields. It is both consistent and capricious and clarifies the way that there are numerous powers that are cooperating. This amazingly intelligent way to deal with nursing which was likewise the aftereffect of her instruction and her flourishing for information gets additionally from a way of thinking with an inspirational disposition to the human being.It looks for the patient to arrive at self-realization as depicted by Abraham Moscow. I would contend that past the hypothetical build she composed and which can be hard for the layman to comprehend, Martha Rogers gave a central conviction that medical caretakers are more than straightforward guardians and however their correspondence and comprehension of the pa tient, the attendant can give a key lift and every day support to the patient to arrive at prosperity. This mental drive is joined with the logical components of information on what is a legitimate situation for the patient to move forward.This last point is especially in accordance with the speculations set forward by Florence Nightingale in making a sustaining domain for patients. It is might be an incident that both were conceived around the same time yet in addition stayed unmarried devoted to the reason for nursing at advancing a solid documented and condition for patients to recuperate. As you would like to think, how did the hypothesis of Martha Rogers upgrade and improve the nursing care given to the patients? Martha Rogers accepted that nursing was both a science and an art.Her flourishing for progressively logical information for attendants implies that considerations were dealt with by better taught medical caretakers who were increasingly ready to comprehend the clinical supporting of the treatment directed to the patient. Simultaneously the all encompassing methodology got from her hypothetical research implies that patients can expect medical caretakers who are more in line with the powers which influence their lives and how the earth where they are recuperating can be influenced by the consideration and care given to them.The by and large influence they get is improved through the idea of helical †the delicate push given to help the patient's confidence by the attendant profoundly affects the patient's recuperation. This is improved as the mental cosmetics of the patient is influenced by the consideration and dedication given by the attendant who has been prepared to comprehend both the specialized cures offered by medication yet in addition attempts to convey and cultivates the vitality fields of the patient †their versatility despite disease and the entirety of the inspiration which will help the patient battle for full recovery.Behi nd the intricate words in Martha Rorer's speculations, I see the job of the medical attendant as both understanding the routine of clinical treatment which has been proposed by the specialists yet in addition a nearby enactment with the patient which implies that the patient isn't the only one in battling for recuperation. It helps me to remember the last supplication of Patch Adams when he advises his kindred understudies to tune in to the nurses.They have a finger on the mental beat of the patient and can identify with the will for recuperation and offer genuine help to the patient. By articulating that prepared medical attendants can comprehend both the specialized issues of a treatment just as the human issues of a patient, Martha Rogers hoists the job of the medical attendant from a basic parental figure to an individual completely associated with the recuperation and prosperity of patients.

Adopting an Energy-Efficient Lifestyle Essay -- Environment Research P

Receiving an Energy-Efficient Lifestyle â€Å"Energy is basic for monetary development, social turn of events and human welfare,† said the Honorable Shri Dilip Ray at the 1999 International Conference on Financing of Energy Sector in Developing Countries (Chaturvedi 29). Be that as it may, it can likewise be adverse to these fundamental highlights of human life by influencing the earth we live in. Nature, involving â€Å"both social/financial and physical/ecological elements,† is right now being harmed by the symptoms of vitality wastage (Cloke and Park 35). This harm to the earth, including biodiversity misfortune, ozone exhaustion, medical issues, and diminishing plenitude or corruption of normal assets, is basically because of the colossal prerequisite of vitality expected to fuel electric influence plants which flexibly home apparatuses, for example, electric lights and warming and cooling frameworks with vitality. â€Å"The complete electric vitality expended in the United States yearly is in excess of 20 trillion kilowatt-hours. Electric engines expend around 58 percent of that, or 13 trillion kwh† (Qayoumi 1). On the off chance that we didn't require as much vitality to support our ways of life, or as it were, on the off chance that we lived in more vitality effective homes and utilized more vitality proficient items, ecological harm could be considerably diminished. We could then infer the additional advantage of having a diminished fiscal expense for vitality utilization. Very little is required to decrease both money related expense and natural harm. â€Å"If the proficiency of each [electric] engine were improved by just 2 percent, and with a normal electric expense of 6 pennies for each kwh, it would convert into yearly investment funds of more than $1 billion† (Qayoumi 1). Be that as it may, we can't hope to help mend the injuries we ... ...Nations. New Delhi, India: Concept Publishing Company. Cloke, P. what's more, Park, C. Rural Resource Management. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Earth Sheltered Home from Ecolution, the Eco-Home Network Newsletter. Eco-Home Network. 30 Sept. 1999 <http://ecohome.org/ecolution/earth_sheltered_home.htm>. Engines and Maintenance: Enhancing Energy Efficiency. Mohammad H. Qayoumi. 30 Oct. 1999 <http://www.facilitiesnet.com/NS/NS3mh52.html>. ST-96-20R Estimates of Housing Units, Households, Households by Age of Householder, and Persons per Household: July 1, 1996. The U.S. Authority of the Census. 30 Oct. 1999 <http://www.census.gov/populace/gauges/lodging/prhuhht1.txt>. Sub-guarantee: Propose to show this with different instances of vitality effectiveness (latent sunlight based warming, protecting homes, dynamic sun oriented warming, geothermal vitality, hydropower, wind vitality)

Our Reading Lives Thomas Mann Appreciation Day

Our Reading Lives Thomas Mann Appreciation Day This is a guest post by Rachel Cordasco. Rachel has a Ph.D in literary studies (which means she’s read WAY TOO MANY books over the years) and has taught American literature and composition. She has also worked as an editorial assistant at the Wisconsin Historical Society Press. Keep up with her in the Facebook group for And the Moral of the Story Is…, on Twitter @Rcordas, and at  bookishlywitty.blogspot.com. _________________________ [OK, theres actually no such thing as Thomas Mann Appreciation Day, but there damn well should be, people. The following is the speech Id give at an event celebrating the immortal author]: As my friends and family know well, I am a bit obsessed with Thomas Mann. Ive read all of his major novels (that have been translated into English- I know, dont say it), all of his short stories, a book of his essays, and the most recent biography by Hermann Kurzke (Thomas Mann: Life as a Work of Art, A Biography; 2002). Ive even read the tetralogy, Joseph and His Brothers, all 1,492 pages of it. And I say to The Black Swan and Lotte in Weimar: youre next! I hear all you Comparative Lit people snorting with disdain, and I see you German Lit people raising angry eyebrows, but read on, and you might just forgive me. Of course, it started with a crush. Not on old Tommy, poor thing, but on a high-school teacher (lets call him Mr. P). He was my schools book club advisor, and therefore I had to join, just to be able to gawk at him outside of school hours. The last text we read for the semester was Manns novella, Death in Venice. Now, when I heard we were reading Mann, I at first sighed miserably because I had read Tonio Kruger a couple of years before and actually thought it sucked. But for you, Mr. P.? Anything! I read  Death in Venice  in a single night, and all thoughts of Mr. P. faded into the background as Thomas Mann stepped forward, my newly-anointed Favorite Author. Its still almost impossible to explain exactly what it is that I love about his books, novellas, and stories. I could identify with his often angst-ridden artist characters, since I too have imagined myself as a kind of Artist (you know, Im a Writer in that fantasyland of my mind. Its a nice place). Im forced to think deeply about the characters conversations in order to understand what they are really trying to communicate, and their inner lives are so nuanced and complicated, just like the rest of us mortals. Only later did I start to think about the issue of translation. I admit that Ive never read Mann in the original German. Ive always meant to study German, but French, Italian, and Russian just happened to come first. And it doesnt look like learning German will be an option in the near future (twin boys- yeah, I know!). However, I decided that getting my Mann second-hand was better than no Mann at all (here I want to give a shout-out to translator John E. Woods- thank you, man, for making it possible for me to read Thomas Mann even though Im lazy and didnt get my Rosetta Stone on). Finally, we are still talking about Mann in 2013. Earlier this month, on the 58th anniversary of his death, the New Republic reprinted a statement by its editors supporting Manns denunciation of Nazism  The writers novels, essays, articles, and stories continue to remain relevant, even in a new century. So, if Dr. Who ever landed in my backyard and beckoned me into the TARDIS, Id happily enter and demand that he take me to 1950s Switzerland so I could listen to Mann talk aboutwell, anything really. Ill bet that his conversation was as mellifluous and as passionate as his texts. ____________________________ Sign up for our newsletter to have the best of Book Riot delivered straight to your inbox every two weeks. No spam. We promise. To keep up with Book Riot on a daily basis, follow us on Twitter, like us on Facebook, , and subscribe to the Book Riot podcast in iTunes or via RSS. So much bookish goodnessall day, every day.

Keeping People Well with Effective Public Health Practice

The well-being of communities is dependent on effective public health practice. In this assignment I will consider the statement ‘The well-being of communities is dependent on effective public health practice.’ I will do this by looking at wellbeing, defining public health practice and by looking at evidence based practice, epidemiology, policies and goals generated and their effective application. I will also suggest why public health practice is not always as effective in practice as it is in policy. Achievement of wellbeing is the nation’s aim, so now how do we in practice with limited resources, political divisions, diverse demographics and actual poverty rising year on year causing 350,000 families alone to access one group of food banks last year( Trussel Trust 2013) , even begin to address this process. The momentum of disease, poverty, isolation moving towards wellbeing, achievement and community is the aim of all public health, an aim to improve the quality of lives lived out in a myriad of circumstances. With this momentum for quality and change wellbeing has been recognised as a measure for quality of life individually and in community and the Prime Minister in 2010 asked the Office of National Statistics (ONS) to measure the nations wellbeing (Cameron, 2010) The ONS attempted to comprehensively assess wellbeing of adults, youth and children including finance, social and human capital , asking questions where networks with others were also seen as a measure ofSh ow MoreRelatedHuman Resources Management Approach to Samhsa Strategic Initiatives1526 Words   |  7 Pagesand guide them on a straight path of success while meeting the mission of the organization. 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This interactive mentoring develops collegial relationships, fosters reciprocal learning between expert and novice, expands leadership capacity and creates a community of practice in which steadily improving role performance is the ultimate goal(Browne-Ferrigno and Muth, 2006, p. 276). Mentoring focuses more on the informal role in which

Why Race and Gender Inequality Still Exist - 1101 Words

Racism and sexism are less visible today than a few centuries ago, but inequalities between gender and race continue to exist. To analyze why gender and racial inequalities prevail, human capital theory and functionalism take into account cultural, historical, and economic factors. In my opinion, the human capital theory presents a more persuasive reason. Although race and gender inequalities in the United States have diminished in the past few centuries, many aspects of these inequalities still persist today. Race and gender inequalities are covert, and blatant discrimination by individuals are deemed socially unacceptable and immoral. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States mobilized many African American and white supporters to promote legal rights for minority racial groups, especially African Americans. President Lyndon Johnson signed the 1964 Civil Rights Act, banning discrimination in public areas, education, and employment (312). However, racism was structured into various social institutions, such as education and hiring practices in employment, making it difficult for African Americans to gain the same opportunities as white people. In 2006, the U.S. Bureau of the Census found that the unemployment rate for whites was 3.2% while it was more than double that percent for blacks at 6.8% (316). In addition, the median hou sehold income from 1980 to 2009 for white Americans averaged $57,000 while for blacks, it was around $34,500 (317). Like race inequality,Show MoreRelatedThe Wage Gap Within The United States1687 Words   |  7 Pagesrights that we deserve including the right to equal wages; gender and ethnic inequality has been an on-going issue in the United States for a very long time. This inequality has been the reason for the Wage Gap which is a violation of everyone’s human rights. 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This is because society uses women to appeal to an audience, and portrays them as being objects. If gender inequality stays a prominent part of the American culture, equality will never be reached.

First Generation Free Essays

1. First Generation (1944-1959) Vacuum tube as a signal amplifier, it was a typical first-generation computer. Initially, vacuum tubes (vacuum-tube) are used as a component of the signal amplifier. We will write a custom essay sample on First Generation or any similar topic only for you Order Now Raw materials consist of glass, so much has disadvantages, such as: easily broken, and easy to distribute the heat. This heat needs to be neutralized by other components that serve as a coolant. And with the additional component, the computer finally appeared to be a big, heavy and expensive. In 1946, the world’s first electronic computer the ENIAC sesai made. On the computer contained 18,800 vacuum tubes and weighs 30 tons. So large in size, to the point that requires a separate classroom. In the seems image ENIAC computer, this is the world’s first electronic computer that has a weight weighing 30 tons, length 30 M and 2. 4 M high and requires 174 kilowatts of electrical power. * Colossus was the first electronic computer of this era. It’s every aspect was kept secret by British Government. * This is the world’s first electronic computer that has a weight weighing 30 tons, length 30 M and 2. 4 M high and requires 174 kilowatts of electrical power. * In 1945, Von Neumann Architecture was introduced. Eckert and Mauchley began working on EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) but it never completed. Later Von Neumann developed his own EDVAC (IAS machine). * In 1946, the development of ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), which was started in 1943, was completed. * Some other computers of this generation are UNIVAC, MARK II, MARK III, Z2, Z4, SSEC (Selective Sequence Electronic calculator) and some IBM computers series such as IBM 604, IBM 650, IBM 701, IBM 702. * In 1954, first version of FORTRAN (Formula Translator) was published by IBM How to cite First Generation, Papers

Philosophy of History Review Essay Example

Philosophy of History Review Paper Essay on Philosophy of History As far as I can judge from the dictionary of modern Western philosophy of the aforementioned marginal fantasies Talking about the conceptual apparatus used the so-called marginals a departure from the traditional ideas of rationalism, reason and essentialism. Michel Foucault referred (although he denied it) to the fashionable at the time in the west of structuralism (and we all late until now) the basic building blocks of structural analysis (search for the so-called objective knowledge) structure, languages, unconscious on knowledge and history material output: structure and more important primary stories. unconscious concept has received the label of theoretical anti-humanism man a function of discursive practices, point of intersection speech practices. Sartre denounced the structuralists, and in particular, Foucault, describing them as the last stronghold of the bourgeoisie. Jacques Derrida, representative of post-modernism and post-structuralism (neither one nor the other has no common program or the organization). It raises the question of the exhaustion of the resources of the mind in all its forms. Example of his reasoning: living present as such does not exist: the past leaves its mark in it, and the future an outline of its shape. Therefore, the present is not equal to itself, does not coincide with itself. Understanding the events of May 1968: Structures do not take to the streets. In the early 90-ies Derrida refers to Marxs texts. In short, this kind of fantasy Flowing fashionable at the time the flow of pseudo-scientific terms, the value of which, as said in unison, two classics (one correcting the other), Dark il negligible, but them without a pint of impossible to understand.

Life as a Bug essays

Life as a Bug essays In Franz Kafkas fanciful novel The Metamorphosis, Gregor Samsa wakes up one morning to find that he as been transformed into a beetle. As the story progresses, we can see that Gregors life as a beetle is not all that different from Gregors life while in human form. Because of this we have to ask ourselves Does Gregor Samsa qualify as a human being? I believe that Gregor does not qualify as a human being and had stopped being truly human long before his metamorphosis. Writers and philosophers throughout history have pondered on what it means to be human. One of the most famous, Rn Descartes, declared Cogito, ergo sum I think therefore I am. But does Gregor meet this criterion; does he think? From the very beginning of the story Gregor emits a certain perpetual calm, his emotions never straying from a composed tranquility. Instead of being astonished or troubled by his transformation, Gregor wants to sleep again for a while and forget all this stupidity (Kafka p.201), as though suddenly turning into a bug doesnt disturb him at all. He only begins to worry when he realizes he is late for work. Gregor truly hates his job, even admitting that it is degrading (Kafka p.202), yet he stays in his miserable position in order to support his whole family and to get them out of debt. Each month Gregor willingly hands over his paycheque to the waiting hands of his family, the action accompanied by no remarkable effusiveness, (Kafka p.219) as though the famil y expects and even demands Gregors selflessness. The Samsas eat leisurely breakfasts and take naps in the afternoon while their son is out working an extremely stressful job to support them, instead of a family of his own. In fact Gregor has no social life, staying alone in his room every evening. His only companion is a framed picture of a beautiful woman, and he values it so much...

Rules for Sharing a College Bathroom

Rules for Sharing a College Bathroom Whether youre living in the residence halls or in an off-campus apartment, youll still have to deal with the inevitable: the college bathroom. If youre sharing a bathroom with one or more people, chances are theres going to be some funkiness before too long. So just what can you do to prevent a place no one wants to think about from turning into the issue everyone needs to talk about? Below is a list of topics that should be covered in a discussion with people you share a bathroom with. And while some suggested rules are included, its important to make sure everyones on board and adjust, add, or eliminate rules as necessary. Because with everything else you have going on in college, who wants to be dealing with the bathroom all the time? 4 Issues WhenSharing a College Bathroom Issue 1: Time. Just like all other areas of your college life, time management can be a problem when it comes to the bathroom. Sometimes, theres high demand for the bathroom; other times, no one uses it for hours. Figuring out how to allocate time in the bathroom can be one of the most important issues. After all, if everyone wants to take a shower at 9:00 in the morning, things are going to get ugly. Make sure to discuss what time people want to use the bathroom to shower at night or in the morning, how long each person wants or needs, if its okay to have other people in the bathroom while its being used by someone else, and how other people can know when someone else is officially done. Ideal Time Rules: Create a schedule during the busiest times for when each person can shower, etc.Realistic Time Rules: Have a general understanding - e.g., Marcos usually gets done by 8, Octavio usually gets done by 8:30 - of when people come in and out and plan accordingly. Issue 2: Cleaning. There is nothing grosser than a nasty bathroom. Well, maybe a ... no. Nothing grosser. And while its inevitable that a bathroom is going to get dirty, its not inevitable that it will get gross. Try to think about ​cleaning the bathroom in three different ways. First, the daily yuck: Do people need to rinse the sink out (from toothpaste, say, or from bits of hair from shaving) after they use it? Do people need to clean their hair out of the drain every time they shower? Second, think about the short-term yuck: If you live off campus and dont have cleaning services coming every week, how often does the bathroom need to get cleaned? Who is going to do it? What happens if they dont? Is cleaning it once per week not enough? Third, think about the longer-term yuck: Who washes things like bath mats and hand towels? What about cleaning the shower curtain? How often do all of these things need to be cleaned, and by whom? Ideal Cleaning Rules: Have a schedule of who cleans the bathroom, when, and what specifically needs to be done. Also, have general rules for things like cleaning up hair and rinsing out the sink. Have each person assigned to take a shift doing a quick 15-minute clean-up every other day.Realistic Cleaning Rules: Ask people to leave the bathroom like they found it and generally clean up after themselves. Have an agreement in place that when the bathroom reaches critical nastiness, someone puts on crazy music and everyone cleans it at once so that many hands make light work. Issue 3: Guests.  Most people dont mind guests all that much ... within reason, of course. But its no fun to go wandering into your own bathroom, half asleep, only to find a stranger - particularly one of a different gender - there unexpectedly. Having a conversation and agreement about guests is especially important to do in advance of any trouble. Talk with your roommate(s) about a guest policy of sorts. Clearly, if someone has a guest over, that guest is going to need to use the bathroom at some point, so get some rules in order. If a guest is in the bathroom, how should other people be notified? Is it okay for a guest not just to use the bathroom but to do other things, like use the shower? What if someone has a frequent guest; can they leave their things in the bathroom? What if the person who has the guest isnt in the apartment or room? Is the guest allowed to just stay and hang out (and, consequently, use the bathroom)? Ideal Guest Rules: Always notify roommates in advance when a guest is coming over. Talk about when theyre coming, how long theyll stay, and if/when they need to use the bathroom for things like the shower. Make sure everyones on the same page before the guest arrives.Realistic Guest Rules: Have a way to indicate that a guest is using the bathroom, whether its a casual hook-up guest or someones parent. Dont let guests just hang out (and have access to the bathroom) if their host isnt home. And no being alone with a romantic guest in the bathroom. Thats not just gross - its tacky in a shared environment. Issue 4: Sharing.  Darnit, you ran out of toothpaste again. Will your roommate even notice if you just take a little squirt this morning? What about a little shampoo? And conditioner? And moisturizer? And shaving cream? And maybe sharing a little mascara, too? Sharing here and there can be part of having a healthy relationship with the people you live with, but it can also lead to major problems. Be clear with your roommates about when and if its okay to share. Do you want to be asked in advance first? Are some things okay to share from time to time, only in an emergency, or never? Make sure to be clear, too; you may not even consider the idea that your roommate would share your deodorant one day, but they may not think twice before doing it. Make sure to talk, too, about general use items - like the hand soap, toilet paper, and bathroom cleaners - and how and when those should be replaced (as well as by whom). Ideal Sharing Rules: Its okay to borrow things like toothpaste and shampoo in an emergency. Always ask in advance and never assume its okay unless someone says so. Create a small bathroom budget for replacing things like toilet paper and hand soap so that when things run out, they can quickly and easily be replaced.Realistic Sharing Rules: Its okay to use my toothpaste or shampoo if you really need some, but replace your own as soon as possible. And its only okay if your sharing doesnt leave my own supply empty. Keep replacements of things like toilet paper and hand soap around so that they are always available; when the replacement is used, buy another one when everyone next goes shopping for household items.

The Role of a Military Officer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Role of a Military Officer - Essay Example The paper tells that although work in the military is perilous, stressful, demanding and a non-lucrative occupation, nevertheless, there is no better reward than to be regarded as someone of service to the community wherein we and our loved ones are living in. That objective alone establishes a sufficient motivation for me to go through this challenge. He is aware that being a Military Officer carries with it a great responsibility and requires utmost devotion and determination. It is his aspiration to gain knowledge and expertise in this field to be of efficient service. He believes that every man has his own destiny. And in his heart, this is what he is committed to pursue. As a Military Officer, he is expected to possess the necessary qualifications to fulfill this delicate function. Society must be assured that he has a keen understanding and appreciation of the true nature and significance of the military profession and have a thorough awareness of the social responsibilities it entails. It is important to be trained to be an effective leader in all aspects of army life and to be responsible for a team of soldiers and other personnel under my command. Aside from possessing high degrees of self-discipline and excellent physical and mental fitness, he is required of expertise, broad liberal education and technical knowledge to effectively apply military force in an orderly manner. Society expects that its Military Officers are committed, competent and capable of taking any mission whose objective is to protect and defend the country.

Analysing Sport & Events Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analysing Sport & Events - Essay Example Finally, it provides a detailed examination of the key findings in each article and evaluates the findings whether they agree and the implications of such findings. The articles cover broadly the importance roles played by sponsorship as an activity for the firms to gain and develop the sustainable relative advantage in the target market and provide the theoretical framework based on the sports sponsorship. Amis, Pant, and Slack provide a theoretical framework for understanding the idea of the sport sponsorship; they explain the application of the sponsorship approach and demonstrates the insight illustrated cases that are used to identify the salient facts and the characteristic that are in agreement. The central concepts that are discussed are heterogeneity, imperfect imitability, imperfect mobility, ex-ante limits to competition and their application of the framework to examine the major sponsorships (Amis, Pant & Slack, 1997). In addition, exponential growth accruals, development of sponsorship-linked marketing and RBV of the firm (Fahy, Ferrelly & Quester, 2004) and sponsorship as a resource as well as distinctive competencies ( Amis, Slack & Berrett, 1999). The insubstantial nature of the sponsorship value which emphasize on the ability to generate importance from the relationship in terms of management of the sponsorship (Farrelly, Quester &Buron , 2006). Heterogeneity occurs when the high numbers and the combination of the resources that are at the disposal of the firms render exact replication of the available resources. Besides that, it occurs in the case in which the firms use the differing routines and procedural steps to carry and perform the same task basing their direct consequences on the unique histories that dictate them to institutionalize. This allows particular organizations to produce the same products and the services at a relatively lower cost as compared to others that produce the same products and services

Introduction To Slavery In America History Essay

Introduction To Slavery In America History Essay Slavery in America developed its roots way back to when American explorers discovered the new world. As a result, the whites started to use the African folks as workers in their plantations and homes as slaves. The African natives that were taken back to America as slaves were of various ages and sex. The women would work in the homes as cooks and cleaners while the men spent their days in the plantation tending to the crops. The young girls helped with minor house works and the boys were tasked with the duties of bailing the hay and loading goods and crops on wagons. During the civil war, most of the Black men were recruited into the army to aid in the fight. After the fight, the thirteenth amendment was enacted on December 18th 1865 under the proclamation of the then secretary of state. It aimed at abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude of the Blacks. It was the first of the reconstruction acts enacted post the civil war. This amendment was soon after improved by the 14th ame ndment which gave the African Americans citizenship but little constitution rights. This was abridged by the 15th amendment which gave the African American males right to vote in the general elections during the reconstruction era The term reconstruction era refers to the period between 1865 and 1877 after the great American civil war. It is the time in the US history whereby the governments of the various states put in motion efforts in a bid to solve the social, economic and political problems that came about due to the establishment of the 11 confederate states union that had disintegrated before or during the war. It was during this period that the Pres. Abraham Lincoln was assassinated (April 1865) due to his lenient policies and proposed passing of the 14th amendment (1866) which aimed at granting the black Americans full citizenship. This move was called for by the fact that there were newly established states that required governance and the in economic, social and political recovery aspects required that all people work together irrespective of their differences in a bid to achieve growth and development. However, these propositions were met with high disregards from the public; majority of whom belie ved that the blacks were meant to be slaves and had no rights. Consequently there developed riots and black codes which were meant to restrict blacks from their rights especially in the south. The 14th amendment was passed during the reign of President Andrew Johnson. However, the southern states established the Black Codes which refers to the laws passed by these governments in order to limit the rights given to the freed African Americans. The 14th amendment gave the slaves a right to citizenship but the Black Codes prohibited them from voting, jury duty, possessing weapons, testifying against the whites and even working in certain positions secured for the white folks  [1]  . As a result of this, the radical republicans supported the passing of the civil rights bill which was intended to protect the African Americans from these Black Codes. However in April 1866, Pres. Andrew Johnson banned this bill claiming that America was a land for the Whites and should be governed by the white folks. Additionally, he claimed that the whites are a superior race to the blacks in terms of abilities and intellect. These statements clearly showed the extent of racism and inequality that existed between the two races. The radical republicans were able to yet again pass the civil rights bill in 1867. This move led to the rise of organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) whose main aim was to frighten and terrorize the African Americans from exercising their rights (voting). The civil right bill did not suffice in protecting the African Americans from the Black Codes and other forms of racial injustices and inequalities. In a bid to justify these racial tendencies, governments in the US enacted the Jim Crow laws between 1876 and 1965. These were state and local laws in the US that supported racial segregation in public places such as public schools, transportation, restaurants and entertainment venues as well as restrooms for Whites and Blacks  [2]  . These laws by default resulted in inferior treatment of the Blacks in terms of accommodations, resource allocation, quality of products and services and even prices. Consequently the Black community in the States experienced a number of economic and social disadvantages due to the enactment of these laws in comparison to the Whites. Despite all these hardships, the African Americans still increased in numbers and managed to survive under these conditions. To counter this, the segregation worsened to a p oint where the Blacks were not allowed in some premises owned by whites, localities (residential estates occupied by whites), or even churches. This means that the Blacks lived in different areas away from the White communities and had their own religious and economic systems different from that of the White folks. In addition to this, interracial relationships were prohibited and if realized; punishable by death (blacks). In 1896, the Supreme Court decided that the Louisiana law supporting racial segregation under the doctrine of separate but equal was constitutional. This ruling was brought about in the Plessy v. Ferguson case. According to the Jim Crow laws, transportation of the Blacks was also segregated and as such, they had their own railway cars different from the ones used by the whites. In this case, Plessy a 1/8th black American citizen, was arrested in 1892 for boarding a car designated for the whites. Under the Louisiana laws, he was considered as a black person and as such was arrested for civil disobedience. The case managed to get to the Supreme Court and after a while a vote of 7 to1 majority won the case. In 1879, Plessy pleaded guilty to the crime. This case sealed the foundation of the segregation laws and was used to further justify the segregation of color practiced thereafter  [3]  . In fact, it clarified the fact that segregation was legal as long as the facilities provided to both races were of the same quality. The southern States however did not provide the Blacks with quality facilities or even equal resources. This case actually justified the separation of race and inequalities in the States up to 1954 when it was overturned by the ruling made by the Supreme Court as pertaining to the Brown v. Board of Education case. In addition to this, the congress passed the freedman act post civil war in March 1865. This act was established in order to punish the confederates who refused to surrender 60 days after the civil war  [4]  . The act stipulated that the slaves of such people would be freed. The congress therefore established this bureau to help the refugees and slaves left destitute due to the civil war. The main aim of this bureau was to assist these people settle, acquire land and to protect them from their former masters. Additionally, this bureau helped in developing schools, hospitals and other social amenities for the slaves and the citizens who had participated in the war but were displaced or otherwise left penniless by the whole ordeal. However, the Jim Crow laws to a large extent prohibited the effectiveness of this act through the limitations pertaining to land ownership and segregations. These laws had adverse effects on the social lives of the blacks in the United States. They all seemed to fuel racism among the people. Collectively, these laws were designed to oppress the blacks and restrict their rights. As such, there were wide spread inequalities based on color (race). For example, the Jim Crow laws advocated for racial segregation under the cloak of separate but equal doctrine. However, there was no equality especially since the facilities offered to the whites were far more superior as compared to those afforded to the Blacks. Also the fact that the Blacks went to different schools, restaurants, restrooms and even used different transport systems clearly showed increased racism in the United States. In addition to this, they also facilitated the presence of second class status among the races. This situation was mostly brought about by the Black Codes. Despite the fact that the 14th amendment gave the Blacks freedom and a right to citizenship, the Black Codes restricted them to exercise certain rights awarded to citizens such as voting, working in some positions, carrying firearms or even testifying against the whites. Consequently, the Blacks were inferior to the whites and their opinions carried no weight towards the political and social development and growth of the US. The fact that the 14th and 15th amendments seemed to favor the Blacks and abolish slavery did not auger well with most states in the south. As a result, some faction groups and organizations were formed in order to terrorize and oppress the Blacks. One such group was the Ku Klux Klan which was established in 1866 in Tennessee with a set goal to ensure that the Blacks who had won the right to vote in the 1867 elections did not exercise this right. It was a racist group that claimed to undo what the civil war and the voting commissions had done to the US. In 1915, the organization diverted its wrath to the immigrants and Catholic Church who they claimed were anti US activists by supporting the Blacks. The rise of such factions brought about various human injustices like lynching of the Blacks, brutalities some leading to death and various forms of intimidation. For example, if a Black person went into the wrong restaurant owned by whites or was seen talking to a white person, this constituted to a thorough beating or even imprisonment. These acts of lawlessness were further fueled by the fact that even the law enforcement agencies were not fond of the Black communities. Many cases were reported where crosses were burnt in the Black communities by members of the KKK as an intimidation technique used to scare the Blacks from voting or interacting with the whites. In addition to this, the whites used signs and symbols to separate the places that these races were allowed to visit. Consequently, this led to regional segregation whereby markets and entertainment venues as well as residential areas for the blacks were isolated far from those of the whites. In some states, the use of sign s was supported by the laws to further dictate and enforce the segregation laws. After the civil war, most of the blacks demanded for repatriations for the slavery. However these pleas fell into deaf ears and as such, poverty loomed among the Black community. This situation was worsened by the establishment of the Black code laws which prohibited the Blacks from property ownership including land and housing  [5]  . In addition to this, Blacks under these laws were not allowed to work in certain positions and were left with very few options such as working in the white farms and other odd jobs which attracted very low salaries and wages. On the same note, their businesses could not thrive due to the fact that the whites could not buy from the blacks or even supply them with the products to sell. All these factors led to an increase in poverty amongst the Black community. In addition to this, the Jim Crow laws prohibited the blacks from owning land. As a result, they had no choice but to rent out pieces of land from the whites a fact that led to the rise of sharecropping. This system seemed to thrive since most white farmers had large chunks of land and little money to pay laborers especially after the war. Consequently, they struck a bargain with the black laborers entailing that they attend to the land for a small fee, shelter and basic provisions a factor that seemed to cater for the immediate needs of both races under the prevailing circumstances. To further ensure that the Blacks were occupied at all times, the governments and local states put in place vagrancy laws. These were among the black code laws and dictated that all unemployed or wandering Blacks be arrested. These laws were specifically designed to arrest the Blacks since the penalty fees were too high and most of them could not foot the bill. As a result, they could be sent to county labor or be hired as workers for private people. As such, the laws ensured that there was enough labor to go around for the white farmers. As mentioned earlier, these laws seemed to advocate for racism and segregation against the blacks. As a result, they affected the cultural bearing of the African Americans in all aspects. For example, the racism and segregation led to the establishment of black churches. Since the Blacks were not allowed to attend white churches, they had to establish their own religious foundations. These protestant churches focused on developing hope for the blacks who experienced hardships and oppression for the whites  [6]  . Eventually, as the churches grew larger, they offered education to their members in a bid to improve their status and chances of bettering their lives. The music developed by the Blacks during this era was mainly of blues and jazz nature. These were somber songs sang to provide hope to the Blacks through the hardships that they faced. In addition to this, the rhythms were thought to have originated from the African continent and were perfected in the states. The Blacks were known to sing as they worked in the fields. These songs were later modified and improved over the years to form the now known Blues and jazz. As per the sports, the African Americans were still segregated and discriminated upon. However, there were some exceptions such as Moses Fleetwood who was known as the first Black player to play the baseball major leagues with the whites despite his race, or other athletes who showed exceptional talent in the sporting arenas. In addition to this, the Blacks also developed their own Negro league which they used to facilitate communication and interactions amongst themselves since visiting each other was risky under the vagrancy laws. The food common to the African Americans was called soul food. The term originated from the fact that the term soul referred to the Black culture for example soul music or soul train. The origin of the food traces its roots back to the African continent and was introduced to America through the transatlantic slave trade in the late 1870s. The cuisine included meals made of sorghum, rice, cassavas and turnips. As such, these meals became the dietary staples common to the enslaved Africans. During the Jim Crow era, education to the African Americans was viewed as a source of inspiration to fight for change against the oppression that prevailed for a very long time. In as much as the Blacks faced various challenges in accessing educational facilities, the church played a pivotal role in providing access to such amenities. The Blacks were realized to be high academic achievers due to their motivation and persistence in a bid to get a better life and to fight for a better future for the generations to come. Due to the oppressive state that the blacks were experiencing in the states, most of them opted to find ways to migrate back to their mother land. The whites on the other hand oppressed and harassed the Black folks with an aim of pushing them back to Africa. As such, the Blacks believed that the whites were superior to them and figured that there would be more chances and opportunities for them back in Africa. Consequently, this led to an increase in migration of the Blacks to other countries such as Liberia where they felt less intimidated by the whites and at the same time got a feeling of belonging after the hard and struggle full life  [7]  . Conclusion Slavery and segregation tormented the lives of the Africans at the wake of the 19th century. In as much as the 14th and the 15th amendments made attempts to protect and reward the blacks for their efforts, many a white folks still felt superior to them. This led to the establishment of archaic laws and policies formulated to justify the racism and other forms of injustice targeting the Black folks. However, the African Americans surprised the whole world by persisting through it all until such a time that they would realize true freedom and equality among the various races.

Marketing – Colgate Greece

When the brand was introduced in the Greek Market? Colgate – Palmolive (Hellas) was found in 13th February 1962 with import of foreigner capital and as seat the city of Athens. It is fact, however, that from 1950, products as toothpaste Colgate, custard of shaves Palmolive, Soap Palmolive they were imported and distributed in the Greek market by the company â€Å"OLYMPIA†, which continued distributing and traffic in products Colgate-Palmolive also afterwards the foundation of Greek company and the domestic production of these, up to 1974. Line Extension | Colgate Sensitive Pro-Relief| | Colgate Max White| | | Colgate Max Fresh| | | Colgate Time Control| | | Colgate Oxygen| | | Colgate Total| | | Colgate Total Advanced Fresh| | | Colgate Total Plus Whitening| | | Colgate Total Fresh Stripe| | | Colgate Sensitive| | | Colgate Sensitive Whitening| | | Colgate Whitening| | Colgate Herbal| | | Colgate Herbal White| | |Colgate Protection Caries| | | Colgate Triple Action| | | Colgate Baking Soda| | | Colgate Anti-Tartar Plus Whitening| | | Colgate Blue Minty Gel| | | Colgate Oulodent Regular| | | Colgate Oulodent | | | Colgate Smiles| | Colgate 2 1| * The overall potential of Colgate’s Toothpastes is 30% as a value share. The table below shows us analytically the potential of toothpastes in Greek market. Colgate Total  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| 10. 8| 9. 9| 9. 4| 7. 5| Aim Complete 8 Actions  | Unilever Hellas SA| -| -| 3. 6| 6. 7| Aim C-Fresh  | Unilever Hellas SA| -| 2. 5| 5. 1| 6. 0| Aim White System  | Unilever Hellas SA| 6. 3| 6. 5| 6. 4| 5. 8| Colgate Whitening  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| 4. 4| 4. 0| 4. 1| 4. 3| Theramed 2-in-1  | Henkel Hellas SA| 4. 6| 4. 7| 3. 8| 3. | Colgate Herbal White  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| 3. 1| 3. 1| 3. 2| 3. 4| Colgate Herbal  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| 3. 4| 3. 5| 3. 0| 3. 2| Colgate Baking Soda  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| 5. 9| 5. 0| 3. 2| 2. 7| Colgate Max Fresh  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| 1. 6| 2. 0| 2. 4| 2. 5| Colgate Time Control  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| 1. 0| 2. 0| 2. 5| 2. 4| Crest Complete Extra White  | Gerolymatos Cosmetics SA| -| -| -| 2. 3| Aim Family  | Unilever Hellas SA| 3. 8| 3. 5| 2. 7| 2. 0|Colgate Oulodent  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| -| -| 2. | 2. 0| Colgate Smiles  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| 1. 6| 1. 8| 1. 9| 1. 9| Elgydium Whitening  | Pierre Fabre Hellas SA| 2. 1| 1. 6| 1. 3| 1. 3| Aim White Now  | Unilever Hellas SA| -| -| 0. 3| 1. 1| Colgate Total Advanced Whitening  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| -| -| 0. 4| 0. 8| Colgate Total Fresh Stripe  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| -| -| -| 0. 8| Colgate Total Advanced Clean  | Colgate-Palmolive Hellas SAIC| -| -| -| 0. 7| Theramed  | Henkel Hellas SA| 1. 2| 1. 2| 0. 7| 0. 6| Aquafresh Herbal  | GlaxoSmithKline SA| 0. 1| 0. | 0. 3| 0. 3| A. The target market The Colgate in Greece has created products for all ages and especially for consumers who are concerned about oral health issues. Each product of Colgate is addressed for the different needs of consumers. First of all for people that have problems with their teeth, such as tooth-decay, tooth-plaque, tooth-stone, sensitive gums and etc. Consumers in this target market usually purchase toothpaste products without caring about the price, as long as they will get the highest quality that Colgate offers to them.Secondly, people who are concerned about their oral hygiene, such as bad breath, and personal appearance. Consumers in this target market are mostly young people that care about the whitening and the cleanest breath that Colgate offers. Finally, another target market for Colgate is kid. Colgate has several products related to children and as we can see from websites and advertising, children for Colgate are a rather important target market. Colgate tries to offer to parents, toothpaste products with the highest quality that will make th eir children’s teeth healthy and without harmful issues in the future. B.Marketing Mix Colgate-Palmolive provides to the market reliable and effective products and it always tries to produce its products with the smaller possible effect in the environment. 1) Product a. Development and History Product is anything that can be offered to a market that might satisfy a want or need. Consumers purchase toothpaste products for their desire and satisfaction that they think the product provide. Colgate toothpaste production started in 1873 over the world. Colgate introduced its toothpaste in a tube similar to modern-day toothpaste tubes in the 1890s. Until after 1945, toothpastes contained soap.After that time, other ingredients to make the paste into a smooth paste or emulsion – such as sodium lauryl sulphate, a common ingredient in present-day toothpaste replaced soap. In the second half of the twentieth century modern toothpastes were developed to help prevent or treat spec ific diseases and conditions. b. Design and Quality Toothpastes today typically contain fluoride, coloring, flavoring, sweetener, as well as ingredients that make the toothpaste a smooth paste, foam and stay moist. Individual toothpastes also may contain special ingredients, such as triclosan in Colgate Total.Toothpaste in tubes is used throughout the world and has been a very successful invention. Colgate provides to the market reliable and effective products and it always tries to produce its products with the smaller possible effect in the environment. Colgate has the highest quality in Market that is why it is first in Greece and over the world in sales. c. Product features ———–Needs to be found from a Colgate package——— 2) Price Colgate – Palmolive prices its products so to be totally competitive to a market. The combination of competitive price as well as excellent quality makes Colgate’s products to be very high i n demand.All prices vary from 2. 5 Euro to 3 Euros for the more composite toothpastes. 3) Distribution A channel of distribution is a group of individuals and organizations that direct the of products from producers to customers. The major role of Distribution channels is to make products available at the right time at the right place in the right quantities. The main Channels for Colgate distribution in market are big department stores as Hondo’s Center, Carrefour and of course supermarkets, mini markets and Dental clinics that our dentist suggests Colgate toothpaste. ) Promotion Promotion is one of the most important part of any company, by promoting the product it is published to consumers that the product exist and is available to everyone. There are many ways to promote a product as advertising, personal selling, public relations and sales promotion. a. Advertising: Colgate primarily used advertisements as its main promotion strategies. Its different products that are de signed for different segments are targeted to the audience by highlighting its features. Its common tagline for all products is â€Å"No1† brand recommended by dentist.Colgate has taken up a weird advertising campaign in Bangkok. b. Sales promotion: As such no promotion is done at retail level except the recommendation by the shopkeeper. But for rural market Colgate uses VAN (van is a mobile promotion station having facilities for screen show, slide show and mike publicity). c. Public relations: PR campaigns were undertaken extensively during the launch of the brand in leading newspapers and magazines, though they were focused more directly on enhancing the image of the parent company in the eyes of stakeholders like shareholders potential investors that in consumers.

A Theory Of Justice By Rawls - 1317 Words

In his book ‘A Theory of Justice’, Rawls was dissatisfied with the traditional philosophical arguments about what makes a social institution just and about what justifies political or social actions and policies. The utilitarian argument holds that societies should pursue the greatest good for the greatest number. This argument has a number of problems, including, especially, that it seems to be consistent with the idea of the tyranny of majorities over minorities. The intuitionist argument holds that humans intuit what is right or wrong by some innate moral sense. This is also problematic because it simply explains away justice by saying that people ‘know it when they see it’ and it fails to deal with the many conflicting human intuitions. Rawls attempts to establish a reasoned account of social justice through the social contract approach. This approach holds that a society is in some sense an agreement among all those within that society. If a society were an agreement, Rawls asks, what kind of arrangement would everyone agree to? He states that the contract is a purely hypothetical one: He does not argue that people had existed outside the social state or had made agreements to establish a particular type of society. Rawls begins his work with the idea of justice as fairness. He identifies the basic structure of society as the primary subject of justice and identifies justice as the first virtue of social institutions. He considers justice a matter of the organizationShow MoreRelatedRawls Theory Of Justice1598 Words   |  7 PagesFundamentally, Rawls aims to present a conception of justice that serves the social contract theory more generally and abstractly than such social contract theories provided by Locke, Rousseau, and Kant. In contrast to Locke, Rousseau, and Kant, Rawls’ conception of justice does not provide a specific layout for the intricacies and structure of each social institution. His abstract concept of justness, however, provides the foundation from which a just institution must derive. Within Rawls’ theory of justiceRead MoreA Theory Of Justice By Rawls1569 Words   |  7 PagesIn Rawls’ book titled A Theory of Justice, Rawls aims to develop a theory of justice that brings new ideas and concepts to the traditional doctrines of philosophy. Rawls’ theory, justice as fairness, wishes to take the ideas of traditional social contract theories to a higher level of abstraction. His theory is thoroughly explained through a pre-societal position called the original position, the notion of the veil of ignorance, and the two principles of justice. Rawls starts out by describingRead MoreRawls Theory of Justice1853 Words   |  8 PagesThe conventional accounts of Justice normally begin by stating a fundamental rule of Aristotle – Justice is to treat equals equally and unequals unequally, and that unequal treatment should be in proportion to the inequality. In everyday life though, justice is seen as an attribute of law, while all laws are not necessarily just. Many great socio- political movements of the world have focused from time to time on unjust laws eg Apartheid laws in South Africa and Caste laws in India. ImpartialityRead MoreRawls Theory Of Justice1905 Words   |  8 Pages Rawls Theory of Justice Ming Chi Wang 36979110 University of British Columbia John Rawls in his work, â€Å"A Theory of Justice,† aims to make up a theory that will rivals intuitionalists and utilitarianism, which seeks truth in morality that cause results in maximizing utility for the maximum number of people. Rawls’ theory of justice is a distribution theory that maximizes primary goods for the worst outcome an individual could be in. By primary goods, Rawls informsRead MoreA Theory Of Justice By John Rawls Essay909 Words   |  4 Pagesindividuals behind a veil of ignorance would assent to the two primary principles of justice found in Rawls’ ‘A theory of justice’. I will also analyse the extract, in particular debating whether various propositions made by Rawls in this extract are true. Initially it is important to situate the extract of discussion. Section 3 of ‘A theory of justice’ is the opening of Rawls’ argument in ‘A theory of justice’, where he introduces his ‘original posit ion’, stating how rational individuals in a hypotheticalRead MoreA Theory of Justice by John Rawls771 Words   |  3 PagesOriginal Position â€Æ' John Rawls discusses the original position in his book A Theory of Justice. â€Å"The Original Position and Justification† is a chapter where Rawls persuades his readers into taking the original position seriously. 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However, he does have certain ideas and point of views that correlate with the views of those that Immanuel Kant expresses, and more specifically Rawls wasRead MoreA Theory of Justice by John Rawls900 Words   |  4 Pagespassage of A Theory of Justice by John Rawls, he says that â€Å"No one knows his place in society, his class position or social status, nor does anyone know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his intelligence, strength, and the like. I shall even assume that the parties do not know their conceptions of the good or their special psychological propensities† (Cahn, 137 – 138). Throughout the entire passage moral theories, specifically about justice are discussed, Rawls explainsRead MoreA Theory of Justice by John Rawls526 Words   |  2 Pagescontext of international relations and economic development, the demands of global justice remain controversial in terms of the relationships between affluent societies and less well-off ones. Many questions have been raised in regard of what distributive justice en tails, what duty of assistance it requires, how much is owed, and to whom. In A Theory of Justice, John Rawls attempts to identify what principle of justice rational agents would choose if they were placed behind the â€Å"veil of ignorance†:Read MoreJohn Rawls : A Theory Of Justice Essay1726 Words   |  7 Pages1a. In John Rawls: A theory of justice, Rawls state that you must imagine yourself in an original position behind a veil of ignorance. I would say another word for the veil of ignorance can be the curtain of the unknown. I would say the curtain of the unknown because the veil of ignorance is just like a curtain that is put up and behind it no one knows who they are. No one knows their race, their wealth status, their intelligence, their assets, nationality, etc. You know nothing about yourself or

Hitler s Political And Foreign Policy - 1263 Words

People make many decisions and choices because of a means of persuasion. Children tie their shoes because their parents warned them that untied shoelaces would cause them to trip. Other children buy a remote-controlled toy airplane because the television commercial informed them that it could fly up to 150 feet in the air. Students go to college because they have been informed by their mentors that college is important for getting a good job and providing for a family. Many German children joined Hitler Youth because, through propaganda, this organization seemed like a fun way to become powerful over the bad guys: the Jews. In Germany, the depression of the early 1930’s was an extreme event that caused democratic parties to lose support. The poor economy influenced people to turn to the radical Nazi party, which offered seemingly easy and quick solutions to all of their problems. Upon Hitler’s increase in leadership and totalitarian power, Germany â€Å"became the poli tical and foreign policy [center] of Hitler s Reich† (Hagen). As their power expanded, Hitler and the Nazi Party effectively promoted German pride and anti-Semitism by utilizing â€Å"machinery of illusion and fear† (Risch). This machinery is propaganda, which â€Å"is defined as ideas that are spread†¦ for the purpose of influencing [hearts and minds]† (The Nazis in Power: Propaganda and Conformity). Through its spreading of ideas, Nazi propaganda such as the media, education, and mass murder influenced the Germans’ heartsShow MoreRelatedThe Inter War Period900 Words   |  4 Pagescharacterized by conflicts among states, political rivalry and economic instability in Europe. Economic competetion between different powers and the depression leaded to the rise of extremist politicians moved to the Mussulini`s fascist Italy since 1920. 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His views were mostly formed in three time periods of his life (http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/riseofhitler/kampfRead MoreAssess How Hitlers Ideology Affected Nazi Foreign Policy Between 1933-391528 Words   |  7 Pageshistory†¦under given and imposed conditions’ has been tainted by several revisionist historians as the catalyst for Hitler’s foreign policy. A.J.P. Tayl or even goes on to argue that Hitler was not only continuing a policy of previous German governments but he also believes Hitler can not be directly implemented in the events which unleashed WW2. However, to attribute Hitler’s foreign policy purely to his opportunistic characteristics would be to ignore his personal motivations and both racist and expansionistRead MoreAnalysis : 9 / 11, A Documentary By American Journalist Thomas Friedman1219 Words   |  5 PagesEman Eljdid May Day Osama bin Laden and Adolf Hitler –both the biggest enemies of their century, both announced dead on May 1st. The unsettling parallel continues beyond a shared anniversary. Behind both men lays a deceptively simple, yet endlessly complicated driving force: a poverty of humiliation. In Searching for the Roots of 9/11, a documentary by American journalist Thomas Friedman, the case is made for a poverty of humiliation in the Middle East as being a root cause of 9/11. The utopianRead MoreNazi Soviet Pact And The Treaty Of Versailles1600 Words   |  7 PagesAlthough Hitler s ambitions and ideology fuelled his aggressive foreign policy, which hinted that a military conflict was bound during the 1930 s, the failure of the policy of appeasement was largely responsible for the outbreak of the war in 1939. The failure of appeasement allowed Hitler to attain resources and land. This kind of expansion is a direct contributor into forming a violent and widespread battle that began in 193 9. However, the failure of appeasement was also directly related withRead MoreWorld War Two Was the Result of the Aggression and Ambition of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party991 Words   |  4 PagesResult of the Aggression and Ambition of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party The causes of the Second World War at bottom relate to the rise of distinction of two powers and the relative decline of another. Those that rise to distinction were Germany and Japan that - Which declined was Britain. Germany and Japanonce that were ultimately prepared were now ready to alter the power structures in there perspective areas by force. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi ideologies were fascists or theRead MoreWhy Did A.J.P Taylor’s Analysis of the Origins of the Second World War Cause Such Controversy Among Historians?759 Words   |  4 Pagesfirst historian to examine the war with a completely open mind, forcing people to view the origins not as a moral issue but as a political history. Taylor regards the start of the war as a blunder on both sides, stating that â€Å"Hitler had no clear-cut plan and instead was a supreme opportunist, taking advantages as they came.† From this Taylor suggests that neither Hitler nor any other Powers want this war. However, because his argument caused such a debate, it led other historians to criticise theRead MoreHitler Was An Almighty Dictator1477 Words   |  6 Pagesdevoted to portraying Adolf Hitler as an almighty leader with calmative power with the view of ‘one leader, one party and one ideology’. This image of Hitler was easy to conceive givin g the result of the holocaust and the creation of the Nazi state. However, leaving propaganda aside, there have been many historiographical debates as to whether Adolf Hitler was a weak or strong dictator, from Norman Rich claiming he was a master in the Third Reich, to Hans Mommsen who stated Hitler was a weak dictator. ThisRead MoreHilters Foreign Policy Essay1226 Words   |  5 PagesHilters Foreign Policy A dynamic foreign policy played a fundamental role in Hitlers rule, his decisions often revolving around his foreign policy aims. Hitlers aims were ambitions, the globalist school of thought most notably Rausching believe his ultimate aim was simply the maximum of power and domination; namely ultimate power. Hitler in the future planning to gain Germen supremacy in the Middle East, Africa and finally in the USA after conquering Europe. Such notions however; as NoakesRead MoreTo What Extent Were the Consequences of Wwi the Causes of Wwii1660 Words   |  7 PagesWorld War One, Europe was left in a devastating state, four major empires disappeared and the economy was profoundly damaged. The first global war had taken place and fear of a second one was strongly felt across the continent. In order to bring political order to European politics and to prevent such a catastrophe from ever happening again, the Paris Peace Settlement took place. The outcomes were the signing of the Treaty o f Versailles and the foundation of the League of Nations in 1919. Despite

Sociology Of Crime Policing - 1392 Words

Sociology of Crime: Policing Part 1: The Original Contribution of Andrew Millie’s Article to the Theory of Policing The article by Andrew Millie â€Å"The Great Debate: How Wide or Narrow Should the Police’s Remit Be?† significantly contributes to the theory of policing as the universal treatment for crimes and the way this authority should work. (Millie, 2014, 1). The originality of the article is that is considers the police as primarily the institution, which is designed for struggle against crimes and suggests separation or delegation of certain obligations, which are currently done by it to the other parties including civil persons and non-governmental organizations. (Millie, 2014, 4). At the same time, another point of concern which considerably contributes to the mentioned theory is that, even though such tendency of separation has its right for existence, the author reasonably states that there are still functions and duties which are not directly aimed at criminals arrests or struggle against crimes, but such ones that cannot be passed over to the other parties and should be the points of contact when the police is asking for assistance in these spheres of activity. (Millie, 2014, 4-5). Another original finding of the author which is, obviously, is one more contribution is that the police can and may be used more effectively not only for the purpose of crime reduction and criminals tracking and arrest, but also crime prevention which is, as per the author’s reasonableShow MoreRelatedMulticulturalism Is The Fundamental Act That All Residents Are Equal1043 Words   |  5 Pageslanguage barrier. It may represent the difference which will rise in the hate crime. In Canada, an individual has the equal rights protection and under the law without based on race, ethnicity, color, and religion. Multiculturalism state policy act of Canada is helpful for cultural diversity, but sometimes it has an impact on race and policing issue. Due to the different background of culture, the immigrants may face racial policing and profiling. Racialization is the issue where an individual treat differentlyRead MoreApproaches to Crime Prevention Essay1036 Words   |  5 PagesFor Crime Prevention Jamal Sanchez Bush Crime Prevention CJ212 June 21, 2011 Introduction Crime prevention has influenced by so many fields like sociology, psychology, criminology, urban planning and design, health care, education, community development, economics social work, among the others. This paper focuses on the dominant approaches to crime prevention which is currently used by law enforcement, courts, and corrections. The dominant approaches to crime preventionRead MoreSociology Is The Study Of Individuals In Groups In A Systematic Way1611 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Sociology is the study of individuals in groups in a systematic way. It is an intricate set of styles and approaches trying to perceive society. (Burgess and Murcott, 2001). As a result, many perceptions have arisen over the last centuries. Many methodologies have been debated and discussed. Challenging these assumptions will in turn, cause for quantitative and qualitative based research on the struggle to gain a firm grip on how society works. As a result, there are different sociological per spectivesRead MoreThe Goal Of Cultural Studies Scholars, Per Stuart Hall,1082 Words   |  5 PagesStudies of now, one thing is for certain – â€Å"the enterprise is incomplete† (â€Å"The Last Interview†). Hall says that Policing the Crisis is a lot more political than the Cultural Studies work that came before it. 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Wrisborne The University of Tampa  The Advantages, Disadvantages, and Response to the issue of Problem-Oriented Policing and Crime Prevention in America Herman Goldstein originally announced the policing method, Problem-Oriented Policing or POP in 1979 (Braga, 2010). The topic of Problem-Oriented Policing has been a very controversial debated throughout the years and whether or not the approach had a positive effect on policing and crimeRead MoreCommunity Policing And Public Security1415 Words   |  6 Pages Topic: Community Policing Name Affiliated institute â€Æ' In every corner of the world, security to the public has always been a concern. It is a responsibility of the government to provide security to its people. To ensure that there is a reliable security to the public, the government must streamline some approaches to security threats and effectively prevent or counter them. It is a common understanding that in most of the times in our lives, we happen to interact with the people who breakRead MoreThe Marxist Approach On Understanding And Explaining Crime744 Words   |  3 PagesExplaining Crime Essay Plan Question/topic chosen The question in which I have chosen for this assignment is: ‘Critically analyse the Marxist approach to understanding and explaining crime’ Why did you choose this topic? I was first originally pressed to this topic not only because am I completing a bachelor of social science to major in criminology but I am also completing a major in sociology. So far in sociology we have learnt about Karl Marx and his contributions to sociology includingRead MoreRobert Peel s Principles Of Law Enforcement1253 Words   |  6 PagesAsha Kaur John Jay Sociology 101 Daniel Mann 11/23/15 Robert Peel’s Principles Robert Peel is probably the most influential name associated with modern day policing. In the year of 1829, he formed the first modern metropolitan police department which the modern day police were known as â€Å"Peelers,† or â€Å"Bobbies.† He set up principles, which are called Peel’s Principles of Law Enforcement that have influenced that has set the foundation to how to keep the safety of fellow citizens as

Frankenstein and Science Free Essays

Chapter 1 Introduction Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall When Evelyn Fox Keller wrote that ‘Frankenstein is a story first and foremost about the consequences of male ambitions to co-opt the procreative function’, she took for granted an interpretive consensus amongst late twentieth-century critical approaches to the novel. Whilst the themes had been revealed as ‘considerably more complex than we had earlier thought’, Fox Keller concludes ‘the major point remains quite simple’. The consensus might be characterised a little more broadly than this – as a view that the novel is about masculinity and scientific hubris – and has led to an enduring use of the title as a byword for the dangerous potential of the scientific over-reacher: It was in this vein that Isaac Asimov coined the term ‘the Frankenstein complex’ to describe the theme of his robot stories in the 1940s, and The Frankenstein Syndrome is the title for a colle ction of essays on genetic engineering published in 1995. We will write a custom essay sample on Frankenstein and Science or any similar topic only for you Order Now This collection takes a very different approach to the novel, seeking to reopen the question of how science and scientific ambition are portrayed in the story by offering a range of historical perspectives, based on detailed accounts of areas of scientific knowledge that are relevant to it. Frankenstein was published in 1818, in a cultural and political climate fraught with contrary ideals. The editors of this collection take it for granted that a successful work of literature is always overdetermined and that it is neither possible nor desirable to formulate a precise and conclusive interpretation of any work of fiction. The wealth of debates and controversies that were going on at the time when Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein make it an urgent task to provide a space in which these discourses can be heard once again. If we listen carefully for the contextual arguments into which the assessment of the benefits and dangers of a new discovery were embedded, we may have to relinquish the assumption (implicit in Fox Keller’s statement and explicit in the majority of late twentieth-century interpretations) that this is a novel with an anti-Promethean message. In doing so, we can gain a more complex understanding of the cross-fertilisations between radical politics and the dramas of scientific exploration. Of course, not every scientist subscribed to radical politics. But considering that most scientists investigating completely new areas of interest had very little sense of where their discoveries would lead them, questions about their consequences were uppermost in people’s minds. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, utopian thinking about the vast social benefits made possible by scientific innovation was a powerful force for good. Advances in 2 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall anatomy, chemistry, electricity, engineering and the exploration sciences were saving lives and creating vast new economic possibilities, besides giving rise to some of the darker forms of human exploitation associated with the industrial revolution. An intelligent appraisal of these consequences required the kind of analytical vision that strikes us in Frankenstein. The end of the eighteenth century is a turning point often called a ‘second scientific revolution’, which Patricia Fara sees as characterized by new levels of confidence in the commercial and social impact of scientific research. 3 One of the definitive influences on this cultural change was Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802). Darwin was a figure larger than life: a pragmatist and idealist, a prolific writer of exuberant verse, a polymathic inventor and a medical practitioner with an uninhibited brief to experiment on his patients. As co-founder and ‘recruiting sergeant’ for the Lunar Society from the 1760s, he presided over the most formidable powerhouse of scientific talent in eighteenth-century England. 4 Members included Josiah Wedgewood (1730–95), Mathew Boulton (1728–1809), Joseph Priestley (1733– 1804) and James Watt (1736–1819). They made breakthrough discoveries in steam power, chemical manufacture, optics, geology and electricity. 5 The driving enthusiasms for their world came from the prospect of its immediate application in industry and commerce. If steam power was the most profitable field of research in terms of its immediate industrial impact, electricity was revolutionary in a more comprehensive and spectacular way. It was electricity that epitomized the Promethean spirit of the age and the American statesman and inventor Benjamin Franklin (1706–90) who ‘snatched the lightning from the heavens and the scepter from tyrants’, and came to symbolize all that was most inspiring about it. In a now famous letter written in 1787 and addressed simply to ‘Doctor Franklin, America’, Erasmus Darwin addressed him as ‘the greatest Statesman of the present, or perhaps of any century, who spread the happy contagion of Liberty among his countrymen; and †¦ delivered them from the house of bondage, and the scourge of oppression’. 6 The declamatory verve of this new scientific rhetoric inspired future generations. Mary Shelley’s father, William Godwin (1756–1836), admired Erasmus Darwin and shared his ideals. Her mother Mary Wollstonecraft (1759– 97), an incisive social analyst with a passion for the advancement of knowledge, developed her own style of Promethean statement in praising the revolutionary quest for a new order of intellectual life: But the irresistible energy of moral and political sentiments of half a century, at last kindled into a glaze the illuminating rays of truth, which, throwing new light on the mental powers of man, and giving fresh spring to his reasoning faculties, completely 7 undermined the strong holds of priestcraft and hypocrisy. Introduction 3 Darwin’s verses were a strong influence on the early writings of Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), but the Shelleys and their circle were of a new generation who had to come to terms with the more horrific legacies of revolution in France, and with the reign of virulent backlash politics in England. The backlash began violently, with the gathering of ‘Church and King’ mobs who targeted those associated with all forms of new knowledge and ideas. Joseph Priestley was the subject of a campaign of public vilification, which culminated in the trashing of his laboratory in July 1791, on the second anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. The intellectual climate in 1818, when Frankenstein was published, was fraught with political agendas and Mary Shelley’s place in it needs to be understood in relation to the allegiance of ideals and principles that bound her to her parents (to whom the novel is dedicated) and to a peer group in which the charismatic influence of Shelley and Byron were paramount. A reading of the novel as simply anti-Promethean, which has been fashionable through most of the twentieth century and especially through the influence of some feminist critics in the 1980s and 90s, fails to take account of the implications of anti-Promethean views for someone in Mary Shelley’s cultural circumstances, and of many of her own overt pronouncements. To a feminist in Wollstonecraft’s era, the idea that bold discovery and the quest for enhanced human power was against the interests of women would have been anathema. In the Romantic period, Prometheus was the hero of all those who sought liberation from oppression. In many respects, Frankenstein criticizes an attitude towards knowledge that came to be identified with the Enlightenment. Subsequent views have either eulogized its grand achievements or condemned its megalomaniac aspirations. Neither of these approaches has shed light on the broad palette of different approaches to the study of nature. In order to understand the full complexity of the period we, therefore, need to distance ourselves from a simplistic retrospective view that the Enlightenment was a period with a homogenous agenda about technological progress and the advancement of knowledge. The eighteenth century was no doubt dominated by monolithic movements that revised and modernised philosophical theories at the same time as planting the seed for the shared values of a democratic and prosperous society liberated from the shackles of superstition. Scholars like Ian Hunter have convincingly argued for the existence of multiple Enlightenments, whose agendas emerged from strongly conflicting ideas about the nature and purpose of human existence as individuals and members of society. The secularising influences of the age of Enlightenment tend to be upheld as key achievements. Although it is fair to say that the period radically curbed the Church’s direct influence on civic matters, the secularisation of public administration was unable to undermine the Christian foundation of European society. It is true that some members of the Enlightened intelligentsia embraced atheistic principles, but this was by no means a general development. So, it is 4 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall ossible to subdivide the multiple Enlightenments into the category of the empirical rationalists, on the one hand, and those who explore arcane and occult matters, on the other. Here it has to be noted that it is a response to the weakening of the power of the Church that lay investigators could encroach on its traditional prerogatives when they examined aspects of psyche, mind and consciousness and, by doing so, rejected the idea that those parts of the human being which were traditionally described by the term ‘soul’ should be excluded from empirical, physiological analysis. Importantly, though, science bridges the divide between sober empiricism and attempts to subject metaphysical issues to the scrutinising eyes of logical analysis. The hybrids between rationality and metaphysical speculation, called into existence by the crossovers between these two types of science, are a fertile backdrop to Victor Frankenstein’s introduction to the world of science. The locations of Frankenstein have been chosen with utmost care. Victor’s birthplace in Geneva positions him in the stronghold of Calvinism. At the same time, it alludes to the fact that Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) returned to this small republic on Lake Geneva as a refuge from the vices of France. Another significant setting for the formation of Victor’s mind is Ingolstadt, a Bavarian town with a recently founded university (1759) that adopted progressive principles and aimed to achieve social reform. Ingolstadt became famous throughout Europe in the early 1780s for a particular brand of Enlightenment: the order of the Illuminati who describe themselves simply by the Latin word for Enlightenment. It is true that Frankenstein does not contain any direct references to the Illuminism, or its founder Adam Weishaupt (1748–1811), but it is telling that the dates of Walton’s letters to his sister, ‘17—’, refer its action back to an anonymous time of the eighteenth century. It therefore seems to be fair to conclude that the pursuit of superhuman objectives must be located in the decade before the French Revolution, when all of Europe was intoxicated with a heady ferment of reformatory ideas and utopian visions. Weishaupt had been educated as a Jesuit but rejected this rigid form of Catholicism and became the first layman to be appointed for the chair of canon law at the University of Ingolstadt (1773). The contribution to the intellectual life of his university, though, was not sufficient for him. Sharing Victor Frankenstein’s immense craving to better the lot of mankind, he embarked on negotiations with the Freemasons. His unyielding temper rendered such a rapprochement difficult, so that he founded a new secret society, which was, however, modelled on this society. The joint efforts between Weishaupt and Adolf von Knigge (1752–96) guaranteed the enormous success of the new society between 1780 and 1782. Disagreement between the two leaders, along with public scandals and denunciations that the society was aiming for political sedition rather than the advancement of human welfare and scientific knowledge, caused serious suspicions. In 1787, the Bavarian government went so far as to forbid it under penalty of death. Introduction 5 The stated goals of the society of the Illuminati were to improve society through the cultivation of sensibility and the practice of scientific research. These objectives were shared by most contemporary intellectuals and it, therefore, attracted the leading lights of German intelligentsia, including Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749–1832), Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) and Friedrich Nicolai (1733–1811). They joined as a means of dedicating themselves to an organised study and cultivation of human nature. The initiatory oath of new members of the order revolves around humanitarian principles: ‘I profess, and also pledge, that I will eagerly grasp every opportunity of serving humankind, will improve my knowledge and willpower, and will make generally available my useful recognitions, in so far as the welfare and statutes of this particular society will demand it of me. ’10 While pursuing similar goals as the philosophes, a group of French intellectuals dedicated themselves to the compilation of comprehensive information about the arts and the sciences to be collected in the one reference work of the Encyclopedie (1751–72). 1 The group of intellectuals around Denis Diderot (1713–84) and Jean D’Alembert (1717–83) aimed to spread knowledge as a means of breaking down privileges and abuses by church and nobility, which is why they advocated a strictly empiricist approach to science. While Weishaupt admired these spokespeople for reason and rationali ty, his own society embedded the practice of rationality and benevolence in an atmosphere of ritual. He also combined his commitment to pioneering scientific exploration with the exploration of the more esoteric borderlines between material and non-material phenomena. The emotional dimension to his practice of reason and rationality, for instance, consisted of the adoption of classical names for all members of the society. Weishaupt called himself Spartacus and Knigge was Philo. Weishaupt’s taste for secrecy led him to refer even to places by pseudonyms, ‘Athens’, for instance, standing for Munich and ‘Thessalonica’ for Mannheim. The veil of mystery also provided a cover for some serious agitations for the ‘elaboration and propagation of a new popular religion and †¦ the gradual establishment of a universal democratic republic’. 12 It was also a fertile environment for the observation of phenomena of psyche and soul. Although Weishaupt and Knigge are not directly recognisable in Shelley’s imaginary depiction of Ingolstadt, there are some revealing links between the heyday of Illuminism and the novel’s scientific culture. A striking coincidence is that the jubilant vision of scientific progress expressed by Professors Krempe and Waldheim positions them in the decade of the 1780s, which was also the time when Antoine de Lavoisier (1743–94) ousted the long-established belief that combustion was a process that released phlogiston – a colourless, tasteless and weightless substance believed to be present in every object as a latent principle waiting to be released. Lavoisier demonstrated the inconsistencies of the phlogiston theory in 1783 and published his own theories in 1789, demonstrating that conservation of mass is a fundamental principle not just in mechanical physics but also in chemistry. Lavoisier, importantly, proved the viability of quantitative 6 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall approaches to chemical processes, including respiration and other vital processes of the human body. 13 In Frankenstein the clash between the old and the new theories is pitched as a contrast between the ‘modern masters’ and ld alchemists. 14 After Krempe’s scornful response to Victor’s interest in their ‘exploded systems’ (29), the benevolent Waldman explains that ‘these were men to whose indefatigable zeal modern philosophers were indebted for most of the foundations of knowledge’ (31). The key figures in the alchemical tradition mentioned in the novel – Albertus Magnus (c. 1206–80), Cor nelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (1486–1535), and Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) – do not simply feature as scholars who made groundbreaking contributions to the history of science. Once he has lost his fascination for the old alchemists, Victor Frankenstein rationalises his attraction to their ideas as a craving for ‘boundless grandeur’ (30). Prior to studying at Ingolstadt, he describes his early quests for the ‘philosopher’s stone and the elixir of life’, and goes on to flesh out the moment of success: ‘what glory would attend the discovery, if I could banish disease from the human frame, and render man invulnerable to any but a violent death’ (23). If he has really studied the writings of these authors, he must have a more complex understanding of the symbolic qualities of key alchemical concepts, like the philosopher’s stone. The text of the novel is quiet about whether he ever pondered the capacity of this most cherished of substances to enable a mystic union between self and world. We can, therefore, only speculate if he was initially attracted to the authors of alchemical works because they embraced a holistic view of nature, which foregrounded strong resemblances between physical and metaphysical phenomena. It should also be noted that many scholars who broadly belong in the alchemical tradition explored the borderlines between mind and matter. Striking investigations of topics as diverse as social deviance, the origin of the Devil, the true skills of magicians, black and white magic, witchcraft, and the power of poisons and remedies are collected in the work of Johann Weyer, Agrippa’s most prominent disciple. 5 If stripped of its religious-demonic framework, Weyer’s insight into the psychology of delusions, obsessions, sexual deviance, as well as a whole range of ailments that would come to be classified as nervous diseases during the Romantic period, is truly remarkable. It, therefore, is no surprise that Romantic writers had a certain penchant for the works of the old alchemists. Mary Shelley’s father, William Godwin, himself embarked on a book-length study entitled Lives of the Necromancers (1834),16 in which he assessed their true achievements in a strictly sec ular light. As a stolid rationalist, Godwin must have wanted to cool his period’s enthusiasm for what he would have described as irrational obfuscation. Interest in the principles of life – the nervous system, the psyche and the soul – however, provides a connection between Weishaupt’s Illuminati, the ‘modern masters’ and the old alchemists. But as is illustrated by the fact that Weishaupt fell into general disgrace while Lavoisier came to be hailed as the founder of modern chemistry, the line between respectable pursuits and politically and otherwise Introduction 7 suspect explorations of the non-material aspects of human existence was easily crossed. 17 Nowhere was this boundary more richly confused than in the dramas of intellectual adventure conceived by Coleridge, Goethe, Shelley, Byron and other leading poets of the Romantic movement, in whose imaginative company Mary Shelley’s story was conceived. * There were strong elements of the uncanny about many of the scientific experiments that caught the public imagination during the first two decades of the nineteenth century. The legacy of Luigi Galvani (1737–98) was continued through the work of his nephew Giovanni Aldini (1762–1834), who in 1803 experimented on the corpse of a criminal recently executed at Newgate, to macabre effect. Electrical charges caused one eye to open, the legs to jolt and the hand to raise itself as if in greeting. In the same year, Aldini published a series of descriptions of his experiments, including some work on severed heads: The first of these decapitated criminals being conveyed to the apartment provided for my experiments, in the neighborhood of the place of execution, the head was first subjected to the Galvanic action. For this purpose I had constructed a pile consisting of a hundred pieces of silver and zinc. Having moistened the inside of the ears with salt water, I formed an arc with two metallic wires, which, proceeding from the two ears, were applied, one to the summit and the other to the bottom of the pile. When this communication was established, I observed strong contractions in the muscles of the face, which were contorted in so irregular a manner that they exhibited the appearance of the most horrid grimaces. The action of the eye-lids was exceedingly striking, 18 though less sensible in the human head than in that of an ox. But for the precision of its laboratory detail, this reads not unlike a scene from Mary Shelley’s novel. At the other end of the vitalist spectrum from the prospect of reanimation was that of spontaneous generation. In the same year as Aldini was engaging in his grisly, jaw-dropping work at the gallows, Erasmus Darwin’s imaginings were all light and life: And quick contraction with ethereal flame Lights into life the fibre-woven frame – Hence without parent by spontaneous birth Rise the first specks of animated earth. 19 The most notorious experiments in spontaneous generation were those conducted by Andrew Crosse (1784–1855) at his house in the Quantock hills in 1836, long after the publication of Frankenstein, but a diary entry by Mary Shelley indicates that she and Percy Bysshe Shelley attended one of Crosse’s early lectures in London on December 28, 1814. Crosse spoke and gave demonstrations on the topic 8 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall of ‘electricity and the elements’, describing in detail his methods of directing lightning currents in order to employ their power to generate light and motion. 0 The early nineteenth century was a time when the magic and mystique of science was crossing paths with an accelerating succession of immediately useful discoveries, and it was impossible to determine which of a range of mind-boggling prospects might become an actuality. The industrial revolution was in its most intensive phase. Human mobility was accelerated beyond all prev ious imagining, and concepts of geographic distance were correspondingly transformed. Richard Trevithick (1771–1833) built the first passenger steam carriage in 1801 and his steam locomotives were revolutionizing freight transport from 1804. In 1807 the first steamship passenger service to America was introduced. In 1816 the Leeds-Liverpool canal was completed. Work and productivity were likewise accelerated, with doubleedged consequences, as the bulk of manufactured goods grew exponentially, but so did the burden on those whose lot it was to operate the ‘dark satanic mills’. 1 A succession of riots and a growing movement of organized protest were features of this timespan, leading up to the Peterloo massacre in Manchester in early 1819. William Wordsworth, reflecting in 1814 on the transformations he was witnessing, tried to express both sides of the account: I grieve, when on the darker side Of this great change I look; and there behold Such outrage done to nature as compels The indignant power to justify herself; Yea, to avenge her violated righ ts, For England’s bane. And et I do exult, Casting reserve away, exult to see An intellectual mastery exercised O’er the blind elements; a purpose given, A perseverance fed; almost a soul Imparted – to brute matter. I rejoice, Measuring the force of those gigantic powers That, by the thinking mind, have been compelled To serve the will of feeble-bodied man. 22 Mary Shelley was part of the Romantic movement, socially and intellectually, and her view of science was accordingly influenced by the heightened perspectives of her contemporaries. Her protagonist, Victor Frankenstein, is a figure torn between the two kinds of vision expressed here by Wordsworth, and there are no easy conclusions to be reached about the inherent values and dangers of his enterprise. * Introduction 9 The main objective of this collection of essays is to bring to life the challenges and complexities of science as they are reflected in the novel. We have, therefore, brought together contributors who can offer readings of Frankenstein in light of the most relevant areas of the period’s scientific knowledge. Rather than focussing exclusively on the individual fields of enquiry which were to establish themselves as the core disciplines of modern science, this book is based on a broader understanding of science. On the one hand, it reminds the modern reader of the controversial aura of, for example, early studies in electricity, and on the other hand, offers a glimpse of the fluid boundaries between pioneering explorations of nervous diseases and esoteric speculations about the existence of analogical resemblances between mind and matter. The scientific advances of the Romantic period could not have been as farreaching and rapid without related efforts to disseminate the new knowledge amongst a wide spectrum of interested parties. Women and children, in particular, became a crucial target audience for the numerous publishers attempting to profit from the ever-rising interest in inventions and new insight into the secret workings of nature. Publications about the people, animals, plants and landscapes encountered by naval expeditions were a similarly popular topic of interest. Owing to William Godwin’s own involvement in the market of scientific popularisation, Mary Shelley learnt about her period’s technological advancements and scientific theories from her earliest years. Much of the knowledge she acquired as an avid young reader with an early penchant for writing was filtered through to her via scientific popularisations and textual hybrids between fact and fiction. Patricia Fara opens this collection of essays with an overview of scientific publications written for a lay audience and available during Mary Shelley’s formative childhood years. Considering that early nineteenth-century women could still only really enter the history of science as readers, illustrators and translators, Ludvig Holberg’s novel about Niels Klim’s journey through a subterranean world (1742) encouraged its female readers to feel at home in the spaces between fact and fiction. Holberg’s novel, along with Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1725), which demonstrated a similar preoccupation with contemporary science, is a revealing early fantasy about the imaginary exploration of alien spaces, mingled with an analysis of double standards and the social objectives behind scientific ventures. Eighteenth-century novels about scientific innovation are, therefore, shown to provide an important foil for Mary Shelley’s imaginative portrayal of a scientific hypothesis. The next chapter, written by Judith Barbour, offers detailed insight into the precise nature of the knowledge disseminated hrough the Juvenile Library? a serialised encyclopaedia published by William Godwin after 1807. Not surprisingly, the household of a writer, publisher and bookseller teemed with intellectual debates about the rationale and implications of new systems of scientific categorisation. Such discussions enthusiastically explored the Linnean order of plants al ong with other attempts to revise the long-established ‘great chain of being’, a rigid hierarchy that assigned a place to all living beings and embraced beings as diverse as mites and slugs, on the one hand, and God and his angelic 0 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall vassals, on the other. 23 Attracting young men with radical sentiments or otherwise unconventional attitudes, Godwin’s home was also a hub for discussions about the social changes made possible by the secular perspective of contemporary science, disencumbered by the crippling notions of mainstream morality. Controversies about mankind’s purpose were considered in light of, for instance, Georges Buffon’s (1707–88) accounts of the resemblances between the human physical frame and that of apes and other primates. The young Mary was, therefore, immersed into a heady intellectual climate that encouraged her to speculate about the reforming potentials of contemporary science. Percy Bysshe Shelley, an influential figure in her father’s circle of friends, was intrigued by the roaming imagination of the young Mary – so much so that the couple decided to elope in 1814. The early dialogues between the precocious child and the already established writer were to grow ever more intensive and, as Barbour argues, inspired the dramatic momentum required for transforming Mary’s fantasy about an artificially created being into a speculative drama about the consequences of contemporary science. In the late eighteenth century, the understanding and experience of space began to change in response to the accumulation of a vast bulk of new information about the geography of far-flung places. In parallel with this development, unprecedented efforts to grasp the secrets of the human mind, psyche and soul probed into the inner spaces of human existence. It goes without saying that the attempt to map and chart the phenomena of the mind could not follow equally objective principles. As Christa Knellwolf’s chapter explains, the inability to draw an objective map made it difficult to proceed. However, it also provided scope for imagining a vastness of imaginary space that reflects the minute infinities revealed by contemporary microscopes. At issue, however, are not the microscopic dimensions that will be the concern of twentieth-century microbiology, but the limitless nature of consciousness and imagination. The parallels between inner and outer space bears special salience for the setting of Frankenstein: The immense distances traversed, particularly in its narrative frame, position the novel’s eponymous hero in both an emotional and a geographic desert. The impossible spaces of the narrative and physical setting of the story, then, raise questions about whether the uncompromising realisation of ideals and absolutes is achievable for an ordinary human being. Contemporary debates on the sanctity of human life are a key concern of Frankenstein. Anita Guerrini’s chapter argues that early nineteenth-century debates about vivisection were motivated not only by the nascent sensitivity towards the sufferings of animals, but also responded to long-standing, religiously motivated attempts to ban experiments that pried into the mysteries of life – human and animal. The discovery and description of the nervous system, however, critically depended on the possibility of observing the physical locations of pain. Like Frankenstein himself, prominent scientists in the field found it difficult to cope with the gruesome aspects of vivisection and were unsure about whether they had a right to proceed with their research. Audiences were still eager to attend public Introduction 11 performances in anatomy but antivivisection debates shed important light on the contested public perception of anatomical-medical experimenters. Francois Magendie (1783–1855) – a French anatomist who regularly performed public dissections in order to demonstrate the body’s sensory functions – as a case in point, who illustrates a growing discomfort with the scientists’ wish to spy ever more deeply into the borderlines between life and death. So a further parallel between the real and fictional scientist emerges as an urgent concern of the novel, consisting of the fact that neither the real nor fictional scientist were horrified by the gruesome environment of the charnel house or suffici ently awed by the idea that a dead human body was the receptacle of a recently departed soul. Frankenstein’s creature is frequently referred to as a monster. While this trite stereotype fails to grasp the problems implicit in contemporary fantasies about the perfectibility of the human body and mind, it also ignores the fact that the monster posed enormous problems for the taxonomies of comparative anatomy, which is why teratology – the scientific explanation of the existence of monsters – emerged as an influential branch of contemporary science. Diverging significantly from the characteristics identified by received definitions of a particular species, Melinda Cooper argues that the nature and purpose of these alternative life-forms posed endless problems and questions. Were they simple variants of the normal representatives of a species, were they a sign that the health of a species had been undermined, or were they indications of special transformations waiting to manifest themselves in the imminent future? Such questions need to be raised in regard to Frankenstein’s so-called monstrous creation. Their relevance is further documented by the fact that debates about the problematic role of the monster must have occurred between the Shelleys and their friend William Lawrence (1783–1867), a leading figure in the controversy over whether the origin of life was the consequence of materialist or vitalist principles. As regards the philosophical conception of Frankenstein’s creature, the context of teratological controversies opens up a new understanding of the novel’s analysis of the origin and meaning of different forms of life. Allan K. Hunter’s focus on an evolutionary perspective leads to a very different interpretative approach, exploring the social and political implications of the creature’s life course. The evolutionary theories at issue here are those of Erasmus Darwin, whose untempered admiration for the revolutionary energies surfacing in America and France fed into his hypothetical modelling of the future state of life forms. Hunter’s essay examines the claim that Enlightenment science enabled new view of the human condition that comes into existence between a distant past and a distant future, and whose endless transformations generate cultural anxieties about the approach of a new evolutionary phase. Seen through the lens of Darwin’s revolutionary optimism and Godwin’s doctrine of perfectability, the creature is endowed with preternatural learning abilities, extreme powers of endurance and a body size that makes him dominant in any physical contest. Yet he is a lso transformable into a force of chaos and a generator of cyclic violence. His creation as a manufacturing process is thus a provocative reflection on the culture of 12 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall manufacturing innovation in England at the time. These tensions and provocations are revealed in the novel’s controversial reception, which also illustrates a growing anxiety in England about the nebulous and excessive tendencies of French thought, compared to English pragmatism. With our taken-for-granted attitude towards electricity, it is a challenge for twenty-first-century readers of Frankenstein to appreciate the imaginative potency of electrical researches in the Enlightenment period. Mary Shelley’s novel capitalizes on the dramatic cultural and psychological impact of electrical discovery as well as its immediately spectacular manifestations. Amongst her contemporaries, electricity was regarded as a life science or, more than that, as the science of life itself. Ian Jackson emphasizes that the most popular and spectacular forms of electrical experiment involved human and animal bodies. Such experiments promised to unlock forces of unlimited potential that might change the destiny of the species, effecting a transformation of human being in metaphysical as well as material terms. When unseen electrical forces were made to cause visible objects and bodies to move, or emit sparks, or to attract other objects towards them, this created a meeting point between the perceptual frameworks of science and animism. Through Galvanic experiments in which the corpses of recent gallows victims were made to dance, these forces are specifically linked with the fantasy of reanimation. The agonies of conscience experienced by Victor Frankenstein also reflect the intensity of debates surrounding researches into electricity which, from an orthodox religious point of view, were dangerously impious, because to reveal those things in creation that were hidden from the human senses was to transgress divine intention. If the Creator had wanted them to be known, He would have made them evident in the first place. Against this view, there was the Newtonian defence that the study of nature, with the purpose of revealing the workings of God to man, is essentially pious because it enables fuller human admiration of divine perfection. The unashamed atheism of the Shelley circle, and their embrace of Prometheus as the greatest of mythical heroes, prompted a move away from defensiveness to the lyrical celebration of bold discovery. However, Jackson suggests that in Frankenstein, Mary Shelley is offering a more troubled view of scientific aspiration. Joan Kirkby’s analysis of the spiritualist ideas underpinning the story of Victor Frankenstein brings up the question of what was regarded as a ‘science’ in the early nineteenth century. Mesmerism combined elements from the knowledge domains of astronomy, electricity and magnetism, with interpretative frameworks belonging to the practices of clairvoyance and spiritualism. Major philosophical thinkers such as Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) and Arthur Schopenhauer (1788– 1860) interested themselves in the presence of spirits, and many of the works of eighteenth-century scientific writers include serious commentary on the permeability of the boundary between life and death. Leading spiritualists of this time, as Kirkby points out, were also leading scientists. Emanuel Swedenborg Introduction 13 (1688–1772) was led by his sophisticated interests in anatomy and the composition of matter to enquire into the specific location of the connecting point between body and soul. In this light, the anatomical work of Frankenstein, driven by an impassioned commitment to dismantling the boundary between life and death, takes on heightened implications. The themes of the novel can also be seen as closely linked with those of Percy Shelley’s major poems, in which a view of matter itself as spirit is xpounded with powerful conviction. The culture of collecting was one of the most significant forms of public engagement with the natural sciences in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. As Christine Cheater observes, some of the tensions played out in the novel are reflections of larger cultural tensions exemplified in the design and management of collections. Victor Frankenstein’s adventures take him from the extremes of conf inement, working day and night in his domestic laboratory, to some of the wildest and most remote landscapes of the world. Similarly, the quest for scientific trophies could lead to travels around the globe but also to the experience of confinement amongst the obsessive and personalised clutter of the cabinet of curiosities. There were tensions, too, between the curiosity driven projects of the private collectors or virtuosi and the growing commitment to expertise and professional specialization, with its attendant demands for greater exclusivity in the management and accessibility of collections. Cheater compares the careers of Ashton Lever (1729–88) and John Gould (1804–81) as exemplars of this transition and the tragic personal costs it sometimes entailed, suggesting that the disastrous conclusion of Victor Frankenstein’s enterprise shares some symptomatic elements. Scientific fictions about the existence of different forms of life did not begin with Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Stories embraced in long-standing speculations about whether there are other worlds and, if so, what their inhabitants might look like, date back at least to Bernard le Bovier de Fontelle’s (1657–1757) scientific popularisation of Cartesianism. While early fantasies about the appearance of beings living outside or beneath the surface of the earth demonstrate little fear about the implications for their own world, Mary Shelley’s novel adds a decisively worrying twist to the theme. Sharing the planet with another species that is their own equivalent (or even superior) may be a prospect for which human nature is not ready, though in her later novel The Last Man, Shelley envisaged a world evacuated of the human species as a place of profound metaphysical emptiness. This work points towards a tradition of bleaker fictional renditions of the future. By the end of the nineteenth century, apocalyptic fantasies dominated the imagination of writers, such as H. G. Wells, disillusioned about the promises of science and their period’s irresponsible treatment of natural resources. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a work that stands at the beginning of such dark visions about the barbarities resulting from a science that is used in the service of megalomaniacs wishing to control the world rather than as a tool for the spread of Enlightenment ideas and values. It is time to reengage with the novel as a work 14 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall that is filled with the energies of scientific aspiration, as well as misgivings about human failure to realise it. Notes 1 Evelyn Fox Keller, Secrets of Life, Secrets of Death: Essays on Language, Gender and Science (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 49. Anne K. Mellor probably offers the most fully developed of such readings in Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (London: Routledge, 1988). See Isaac Asimov, ‘Robots, computers and fear’, Introduction to Machines That Think (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), p. 1; Bernard E. Rollin, ed. The Frankenstein Syndrome: Ethical and Social Issues in the Genetic Engineering of Animals (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995). Patricia Fara, An Entertainment for Angels (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2002), p. 22. Desmond King-Hele, Doctor of Revolution: The Life and Genius of Erasmus Darwin (London: Faber Faber, 1977). Jenny Uglow, The Lunar Men: The Friends Who Made the Future, 1730–1810 (London: Faber Faber, 2002). Erasmus Darwin, letter to Benjamin Franklin, 29 May 1787 in American Philosophical Society collection of Franklin Papers XXXV, 70; quoted in King-Hele (London: Faber Faber, 1977), p. 79. Mary Wollstonecraft, An Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, in Mary Wollstonecraft, Political Writings, ed. Janet Todd (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), p. 292. Ian Hunter, Rival Enlightenments: Civil and Metaphysical Philosophy in Early Modern Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001). For a historical background of eighteenth-century freemasonry, see Margaret Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991). For a etailed historical analysis of Illuminism, see Richard van Dulmen, Der Geheimbund der Illuminaten: Darstellung, Analyse, Dokumentation, trans. Christa Knellwolf (Stuttgart: F. Frommann, 1975), p. 159. Denis Diderot and Jean Dâ€℠¢Alembert Le Rond, eds, L’Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire raisonne des art et des sciences (Paris: Le Breton, 1751–72). For a discussion of the cultural context and objectives of the philosophes, see David Garrioch, ‘The party of the Philosophes’, in The Enlightenment World, eds Martin Fitzpartick, Peter Jones, Christa Knellwolf and Iain McCalman (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 26–41. Compare the entry for ‘Illuminati’ in the Catholic Encyclopaedia online: [accessed 10 October 2007]. Antoine Lavoisier, Traite elementaire de chimie, presente dans un ordre nouveau et d’apres les decouvertes modernes, 2 vols (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; repr. Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965). Mary Shelley, Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus: The 1818 Text (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993), p. 30. All further references are from this text and are cited parenthetically. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Introduction 15 5 Johann Weyer, De praest igiis daemonum, trans. John Shea, in Witches, Devils, and Doctors in the Renaissance (Binghamton, NY: Medieval Renaissance Texts Studies, 1991 [1583]). 16 For the details of Godwin’s study, see Lives of the Necromancers: or, An Account of the Most Eminent Persons in Successive Ages, Who Have Claimed for Themselves, or to Whom Has Been Imputed by Others, the Exercise of Magical Power (London: Frederick J. Mason, 1834). 17 Also compare Robert Darnton, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1968); and Auguste Viatte, Les sources occultes du romanticism, illuminism, theosophie, 1770–1820 (Paris: Champion, 1965). 18 John [Giovanni] Aldini, ‘An account of the late improvements in galvanism, with a series of curious and interesting experiments performed before the commissioners of the French National Institute, and repeated lately in the anatomical theaters of London’ (London: 1803). Extracts from this document available online at [accessed 10 October 2007]. 19 Erasmus Darwin, The Temple of Nature (London: J. Johnson, 1803), Canto II, iv, lines 246–51. 20 Peter Haining, The Man Who Was Frankenstein (London: Frederick Muller, 1979), pp. 56–63. 21 William Blake, Jerusalem; quoted from Literature Online [accessed 10 October 2007]. 22 William Wordsworth, The Excursion, Book 8, pp. 243 and 244; quoted from Literature Online [accessed 10 October 2007]. 23 For a historical overview of the concept, see A. O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1948). How to cite Frankenstein and Science, Papers