Sociology Of Crime Policing - 1392 Words

Sociology of Crime: Policing Part 1: The Original Contribution of Andrew Millie’s Article to the Theory of Policing The article by Andrew Millie â€Å"The Great Debate: How Wide or Narrow Should the Police’s Remit Be?† significantly contributes to the theory of policing as the universal treatment for crimes and the way this authority should work. (Millie, 2014, 1). The originality of the article is that is considers the police as primarily the institution, which is designed for struggle against crimes and suggests separation or delegation of certain obligations, which are currently done by it to the other parties including civil persons and non-governmental organizations. (Millie, 2014, 4). At the same time, another point of concern which considerably contributes to the mentioned theory is that, even though such tendency of separation has its right for existence, the author reasonably states that there are still functions and duties which are not directly aimed at criminals arrests or struggle against crimes, but such ones that cannot be passed over to the other parties and should be the points of contact when the police is asking for assistance in these spheres of activity. (Millie, 2014, 4-5). Another original finding of the author which is, obviously, is one more contribution is that the police can and may be used more effectively not only for the purpose of crime reduction and criminals tracking and arrest, but also crime prevention which is, as per the author’s reasonableShow MoreRelatedMulticulturalism Is The Fundamental Act That All Residents Are Equal1043 Words   |  5 Pageslanguage barrier. It may represent the difference which will rise in the hate crime. 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Frankenstein and Science Free Essays

Chapter 1 Introduction Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall When Evelyn Fox Keller wrote that ‘Frankenstein is a story first and foremost about the consequences of male ambitions to co-opt the procreative function’, she took for granted an interpretive consensus amongst late twentieth-century critical approaches to the novel. Whilst the themes had been revealed as ‘considerably more complex than we had earlier thought’, Fox Keller concludes ‘the major point remains quite simple’. The consensus might be characterised a little more broadly than this – as a view that the novel is about masculinity and scientific hubris – and has led to an enduring use of the title as a byword for the dangerous potential of the scientific over-reacher: It was in this vein that Isaac Asimov coined the term ‘the Frankenstein complex’ to describe the theme of his robot stories in the 1940s, and The Frankenstein Syndrome is the title for a colle ction of essays on genetic engineering published in 1995. We will write a custom essay sample on Frankenstein and Science or any similar topic only for you Order Now This collection takes a very different approach to the novel, seeking to reopen the question of how science and scientific ambition are portrayed in the story by offering a range of historical perspectives, based on detailed accounts of areas of scientific knowledge that are relevant to it. Frankenstein was published in 1818, in a cultural and political climate fraught with contrary ideals. The editors of this collection take it for granted that a successful work of literature is always overdetermined and that it is neither possible nor desirable to formulate a precise and conclusive interpretation of any work of fiction. The wealth of debates and controversies that were going on at the time when Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein make it an urgent task to provide a space in which these discourses can be heard once again. If we listen carefully for the contextual arguments into which the assessment of the benefits and dangers of a new discovery were embedded, we may have to relinquish the assumption (implicit in Fox Keller’s statement and explicit in the majority of late twentieth-century interpretations) that this is a novel with an anti-Promethean message. In doing so, we can gain a more complex understanding of the cross-fertilisations between radical politics and the dramas of scientific exploration. Of course, not every scientist subscribed to radical politics. But considering that most scientists investigating completely new areas of interest had very little sense of where their discoveries would lead them, questions about their consequences were uppermost in people’s minds. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, utopian thinking about the vast social benefits made possible by scientific innovation was a powerful force for good. Advances in 2 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall anatomy, chemistry, electricity, engineering and the exploration sciences were saving lives and creating vast new economic possibilities, besides giving rise to some of the darker forms of human exploitation associated with the industrial revolution. An intelligent appraisal of these consequences required the kind of analytical vision that strikes us in Frankenstein. The end of the eighteenth century is a turning point often called a ‘second scientific revolution’, which Patricia Fara sees as characterized by new levels of confidence in the commercial and social impact of scientific research. 3 One of the definitive influences on this cultural change was Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802). Darwin was a figure larger than life: a pragmatist and idealist, a prolific writer of exuberant verse, a polymathic inventor and a medical practitioner with an uninhibited brief to experiment on his patients. As co-founder and ‘recruiting sergeant’ for the Lunar Society from the 1760s, he presided over the most formidable powerhouse of scientific talent in eighteenth-century England. 4 Members included Josiah Wedgewood (1730–95), Mathew Boulton (1728–1809), Joseph Priestley (1733– 1804) and James Watt (1736–1819). They made breakthrough discoveries in steam power, chemical manufacture, optics, geology and electricity. 5 The driving enthusiasms for their world came from the prospect of its immediate application in industry and commerce. If steam power was the most profitable field of research in terms of its immediate industrial impact, electricity was revolutionary in a more comprehensive and spectacular way. It was electricity that epitomized the Promethean spirit of the age and the American statesman and inventor Benjamin Franklin (1706–90) who ‘snatched the lightning from the heavens and the scepter from tyrants’, and came to symbolize all that was most inspiring about it. In a now famous letter written in 1787 and addressed simply to ‘Doctor Franklin, America’, Erasmus Darwin addressed him as ‘the greatest Statesman of the present, or perhaps of any century, who spread the happy contagion of Liberty among his countrymen; and †¦ delivered them from the house of bondage, and the scourge of oppression’. 6 The declamatory verve of this new scientific rhetoric inspired future generations. Mary Shelley’s father, William Godwin (1756–1836), admired Erasmus Darwin and shared his ideals. Her mother Mary Wollstonecraft (1759– 97), an incisive social analyst with a passion for the advancement of knowledge, developed her own style of Promethean statement in praising the revolutionary quest for a new order of intellectual life: But the irresistible energy of moral and political sentiments of half a century, at last kindled into a glaze the illuminating rays of truth, which, throwing new light on the mental powers of man, and giving fresh spring to his reasoning faculties, completely 7 undermined the strong holds of priestcraft and hypocrisy. Introduction 3 Darwin’s verses were a strong influence on the early writings of Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), but the Shelleys and their circle were of a new generation who had to come to terms with the more horrific legacies of revolution in France, and with the reign of virulent backlash politics in England. The backlash began violently, with the gathering of ‘Church and King’ mobs who targeted those associated with all forms of new knowledge and ideas. Joseph Priestley was the subject of a campaign of public vilification, which culminated in the trashing of his laboratory in July 1791, on the second anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. The intellectual climate in 1818, when Frankenstein was published, was fraught with political agendas and Mary Shelley’s place in it needs to be understood in relation to the allegiance of ideals and principles that bound her to her parents (to whom the novel is dedicated) and to a peer group in which the charismatic influence of Shelley and Byron were paramount. A reading of the novel as simply anti-Promethean, which has been fashionable through most of the twentieth century and especially through the influence of some feminist critics in the 1980s and 90s, fails to take account of the implications of anti-Promethean views for someone in Mary Shelley’s cultural circumstances, and of many of her own overt pronouncements. To a feminist in Wollstonecraft’s era, the idea that bold discovery and the quest for enhanced human power was against the interests of women would have been anathema. In the Romantic period, Prometheus was the hero of all those who sought liberation from oppression. In many respects, Frankenstein criticizes an attitude towards knowledge that came to be identified with the Enlightenment. Subsequent views have either eulogized its grand achievements or condemned its megalomaniac aspirations. Neither of these approaches has shed light on the broad palette of different approaches to the study of nature. In order to understand the full complexity of the period we, therefore, need to distance ourselves from a simplistic retrospective view that the Enlightenment was a period with a homogenous agenda about technological progress and the advancement of knowledge. The eighteenth century was no doubt dominated by monolithic movements that revised and modernised philosophical theories at the same time as planting the seed for the shared values of a democratic and prosperous society liberated from the shackles of superstition. Scholars like Ian Hunter have convincingly argued for the existence of multiple Enlightenments, whose agendas emerged from strongly conflicting ideas about the nature and purpose of human existence as individuals and members of society. The secularising influences of the age of Enlightenment tend to be upheld as key achievements. Although it is fair to say that the period radically curbed the Church’s direct influence on civic matters, the secularisation of public administration was unable to undermine the Christian foundation of European society. It is true that some members of the Enlightened intelligentsia embraced atheistic principles, but this was by no means a general development. So, it is 4 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall ossible to subdivide the multiple Enlightenments into the category of the empirical rationalists, on the one hand, and those who explore arcane and occult matters, on the other. Here it has to be noted that it is a response to the weakening of the power of the Church that lay investigators could encroach on its traditional prerogatives when they examined aspects of psyche, mind and consciousness and, by doing so, rejected the idea that those parts of the human being which were traditionally described by the term ‘soul’ should be excluded from empirical, physiological analysis. Importantly, though, science bridges the divide between sober empiricism and attempts to subject metaphysical issues to the scrutinising eyes of logical analysis. The hybrids between rationality and metaphysical speculation, called into existence by the crossovers between these two types of science, are a fertile backdrop to Victor Frankenstein’s introduction to the world of science. The locations of Frankenstein have been chosen with utmost care. Victor’s birthplace in Geneva positions him in the stronghold of Calvinism. At the same time, it alludes to the fact that Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) returned to this small republic on Lake Geneva as a refuge from the vices of France. Another significant setting for the formation of Victor’s mind is Ingolstadt, a Bavarian town with a recently founded university (1759) that adopted progressive principles and aimed to achieve social reform. Ingolstadt became famous throughout Europe in the early 1780s for a particular brand of Enlightenment: the order of the Illuminati who describe themselves simply by the Latin word for Enlightenment. It is true that Frankenstein does not contain any direct references to the Illuminism, or its founder Adam Weishaupt (1748–1811), but it is telling that the dates of Walton’s letters to his sister, ‘17—’, refer its action back to an anonymous time of the eighteenth century. It therefore seems to be fair to conclude that the pursuit of superhuman objectives must be located in the decade before the French Revolution, when all of Europe was intoxicated with a heady ferment of reformatory ideas and utopian visions. Weishaupt had been educated as a Jesuit but rejected this rigid form of Catholicism and became the first layman to be appointed for the chair of canon law at the University of Ingolstadt (1773). The contribution to the intellectual life of his university, though, was not sufficient for him. Sharing Victor Frankenstein’s immense craving to better the lot of mankind, he embarked on negotiations with the Freemasons. His unyielding temper rendered such a rapprochement difficult, so that he founded a new secret society, which was, however, modelled on this society. The joint efforts between Weishaupt and Adolf von Knigge (1752–96) guaranteed the enormous success of the new society between 1780 and 1782. Disagreement between the two leaders, along with public scandals and denunciations that the society was aiming for political sedition rather than the advancement of human welfare and scientific knowledge, caused serious suspicions. In 1787, the Bavarian government went so far as to forbid it under penalty of death. Introduction 5 The stated goals of the society of the Illuminati were to improve society through the cultivation of sensibility and the practice of scientific research. These objectives were shared by most contemporary intellectuals and it, therefore, attracted the leading lights of German intelligentsia, including Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749–1832), Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) and Friedrich Nicolai (1733–1811). They joined as a means of dedicating themselves to an organised study and cultivation of human nature. The initiatory oath of new members of the order revolves around humanitarian principles: ‘I profess, and also pledge, that I will eagerly grasp every opportunity of serving humankind, will improve my knowledge and willpower, and will make generally available my useful recognitions, in so far as the welfare and statutes of this particular society will demand it of me. ’10 While pursuing similar goals as the philosophes, a group of French intellectuals dedicated themselves to the compilation of comprehensive information about the arts and the sciences to be collected in the one reference work of the Encyclopedie (1751–72). 1 The group of intellectuals around Denis Diderot (1713–84) and Jean D’Alembert (1717–83) aimed to spread knowledge as a means of breaking down privileges and abuses by church and nobility, which is why they advocated a strictly empiricist approach to science. While Weishaupt admired these spokespeople for reason and rationali ty, his own society embedded the practice of rationality and benevolence in an atmosphere of ritual. He also combined his commitment to pioneering scientific exploration with the exploration of the more esoteric borderlines between material and non-material phenomena. The emotional dimension to his practice of reason and rationality, for instance, consisted of the adoption of classical names for all members of the society. Weishaupt called himself Spartacus and Knigge was Philo. Weishaupt’s taste for secrecy led him to refer even to places by pseudonyms, ‘Athens’, for instance, standing for Munich and ‘Thessalonica’ for Mannheim. The veil of mystery also provided a cover for some serious agitations for the ‘elaboration and propagation of a new popular religion and †¦ the gradual establishment of a universal democratic republic’. 12 It was also a fertile environment for the observation of phenomena of psyche and soul. Although Weishaupt and Knigge are not directly recognisable in Shelley’s imaginary depiction of Ingolstadt, there are some revealing links between the heyday of Illuminism and the novel’s scientific culture. A striking coincidence is that the jubilant vision of scientific progress expressed by Professors Krempe and Waldheim positions them in the decade of the 1780s, which was also the time when Antoine de Lavoisier (1743–94) ousted the long-established belief that combustion was a process that released phlogiston – a colourless, tasteless and weightless substance believed to be present in every object as a latent principle waiting to be released. Lavoisier demonstrated the inconsistencies of the phlogiston theory in 1783 and published his own theories in 1789, demonstrating that conservation of mass is a fundamental principle not just in mechanical physics but also in chemistry. Lavoisier, importantly, proved the viability of quantitative 6 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall approaches to chemical processes, including respiration and other vital processes of the human body. 13 In Frankenstein the clash between the old and the new theories is pitched as a contrast between the ‘modern masters’ and ld alchemists. 14 After Krempe’s scornful response to Victor’s interest in their ‘exploded systems’ (29), the benevolent Waldman explains that ‘these were men to whose indefatigable zeal modern philosophers were indebted for most of the foundations of knowledge’ (31). The key figures in the alchemical tradition mentioned in the novel – Albertus Magnus (c. 1206–80), Cor nelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (1486–1535), and Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) – do not simply feature as scholars who made groundbreaking contributions to the history of science. Once he has lost his fascination for the old alchemists, Victor Frankenstein rationalises his attraction to their ideas as a craving for ‘boundless grandeur’ (30). Prior to studying at Ingolstadt, he describes his early quests for the ‘philosopher’s stone and the elixir of life’, and goes on to flesh out the moment of success: ‘what glory would attend the discovery, if I could banish disease from the human frame, and render man invulnerable to any but a violent death’ (23). If he has really studied the writings of these authors, he must have a more complex understanding of the symbolic qualities of key alchemical concepts, like the philosopher’s stone. The text of the novel is quiet about whether he ever pondered the capacity of this most cherished of substances to enable a mystic union between self and world. We can, therefore, only speculate if he was initially attracted to the authors of alchemical works because they embraced a holistic view of nature, which foregrounded strong resemblances between physical and metaphysical phenomena. It should also be noted that many scholars who broadly belong in the alchemical tradition explored the borderlines between mind and matter. Striking investigations of topics as diverse as social deviance, the origin of the Devil, the true skills of magicians, black and white magic, witchcraft, and the power of poisons and remedies are collected in the work of Johann Weyer, Agrippa’s most prominent disciple. 5 If stripped of its religious-demonic framework, Weyer’s insight into the psychology of delusions, obsessions, sexual deviance, as well as a whole range of ailments that would come to be classified as nervous diseases during the Romantic period, is truly remarkable. It, therefore, is no surprise that Romantic writers had a certain penchant for the works of the old alchemists. Mary Shelley’s father, William Godwin, himself embarked on a book-length study entitled Lives of the Necromancers (1834),16 in which he assessed their true achievements in a strictly sec ular light. As a stolid rationalist, Godwin must have wanted to cool his period’s enthusiasm for what he would have described as irrational obfuscation. Interest in the principles of life – the nervous system, the psyche and the soul – however, provides a connection between Weishaupt’s Illuminati, the ‘modern masters’ and the old alchemists. But as is illustrated by the fact that Weishaupt fell into general disgrace while Lavoisier came to be hailed as the founder of modern chemistry, the line between respectable pursuits and politically and otherwise Introduction 7 suspect explorations of the non-material aspects of human existence was easily crossed. 17 Nowhere was this boundary more richly confused than in the dramas of intellectual adventure conceived by Coleridge, Goethe, Shelley, Byron and other leading poets of the Romantic movement, in whose imaginative company Mary Shelley’s story was conceived. * There were strong elements of the uncanny about many of the scientific experiments that caught the public imagination during the first two decades of the nineteenth century. The legacy of Luigi Galvani (1737–98) was continued through the work of his nephew Giovanni Aldini (1762–1834), who in 1803 experimented on the corpse of a criminal recently executed at Newgate, to macabre effect. Electrical charges caused one eye to open, the legs to jolt and the hand to raise itself as if in greeting. In the same year, Aldini published a series of descriptions of his experiments, including some work on severed heads: The first of these decapitated criminals being conveyed to the apartment provided for my experiments, in the neighborhood of the place of execution, the head was first subjected to the Galvanic action. For this purpose I had constructed a pile consisting of a hundred pieces of silver and zinc. Having moistened the inside of the ears with salt water, I formed an arc with two metallic wires, which, proceeding from the two ears, were applied, one to the summit and the other to the bottom of the pile. When this communication was established, I observed strong contractions in the muscles of the face, which were contorted in so irregular a manner that they exhibited the appearance of the most horrid grimaces. The action of the eye-lids was exceedingly striking, 18 though less sensible in the human head than in that of an ox. But for the precision of its laboratory detail, this reads not unlike a scene from Mary Shelley’s novel. At the other end of the vitalist spectrum from the prospect of reanimation was that of spontaneous generation. In the same year as Aldini was engaging in his grisly, jaw-dropping work at the gallows, Erasmus Darwin’s imaginings were all light and life: And quick contraction with ethereal flame Lights into life the fibre-woven frame – Hence without parent by spontaneous birth Rise the first specks of animated earth. 19 The most notorious experiments in spontaneous generation were those conducted by Andrew Crosse (1784–1855) at his house in the Quantock hills in 1836, long after the publication of Frankenstein, but a diary entry by Mary Shelley indicates that she and Percy Bysshe Shelley attended one of Crosse’s early lectures in London on December 28, 1814. Crosse spoke and gave demonstrations on the topic 8 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall of ‘electricity and the elements’, describing in detail his methods of directing lightning currents in order to employ their power to generate light and motion. 0 The early nineteenth century was a time when the magic and mystique of science was crossing paths with an accelerating succession of immediately useful discoveries, and it was impossible to determine which of a range of mind-boggling prospects might become an actuality. The industrial revolution was in its most intensive phase. Human mobility was accelerated beyond all prev ious imagining, and concepts of geographic distance were correspondingly transformed. Richard Trevithick (1771–1833) built the first passenger steam carriage in 1801 and his steam locomotives were revolutionizing freight transport from 1804. In 1807 the first steamship passenger service to America was introduced. In 1816 the Leeds-Liverpool canal was completed. Work and productivity were likewise accelerated, with doubleedged consequences, as the bulk of manufactured goods grew exponentially, but so did the burden on those whose lot it was to operate the ‘dark satanic mills’. 1 A succession of riots and a growing movement of organized protest were features of this timespan, leading up to the Peterloo massacre in Manchester in early 1819. William Wordsworth, reflecting in 1814 on the transformations he was witnessing, tried to express both sides of the account: I grieve, when on the darker side Of this great change I look; and there behold Such outrage done to nature as compels The indignant power to justify herself; Yea, to avenge her violated righ ts, For England’s bane. And et I do exult, Casting reserve away, exult to see An intellectual mastery exercised O’er the blind elements; a purpose given, A perseverance fed; almost a soul Imparted – to brute matter. I rejoice, Measuring the force of those gigantic powers That, by the thinking mind, have been compelled To serve the will of feeble-bodied man. 22 Mary Shelley was part of the Romantic movement, socially and intellectually, and her view of science was accordingly influenced by the heightened perspectives of her contemporaries. Her protagonist, Victor Frankenstein, is a figure torn between the two kinds of vision expressed here by Wordsworth, and there are no easy conclusions to be reached about the inherent values and dangers of his enterprise. * Introduction 9 The main objective of this collection of essays is to bring to life the challenges and complexities of science as they are reflected in the novel. We have, therefore, brought together contributors who can offer readings of Frankenstein in light of the most relevant areas of the period’s scientific knowledge. Rather than focussing exclusively on the individual fields of enquiry which were to establish themselves as the core disciplines of modern science, this book is based on a broader understanding of science. On the one hand, it reminds the modern reader of the controversial aura of, for example, early studies in electricity, and on the other hand, offers a glimpse of the fluid boundaries between pioneering explorations of nervous diseases and esoteric speculations about the existence of analogical resemblances between mind and matter. The scientific advances of the Romantic period could not have been as farreaching and rapid without related efforts to disseminate the new knowledge amongst a wide spectrum of interested parties. Women and children, in particular, became a crucial target audience for the numerous publishers attempting to profit from the ever-rising interest in inventions and new insight into the secret workings of nature. Publications about the people, animals, plants and landscapes encountered by naval expeditions were a similarly popular topic of interest. Owing to William Godwin’s own involvement in the market of scientific popularisation, Mary Shelley learnt about her period’s technological advancements and scientific theories from her earliest years. Much of the knowledge she acquired as an avid young reader with an early penchant for writing was filtered through to her via scientific popularisations and textual hybrids between fact and fiction. Patricia Fara opens this collection of essays with an overview of scientific publications written for a lay audience and available during Mary Shelley’s formative childhood years. Considering that early nineteenth-century women could still only really enter the history of science as readers, illustrators and translators, Ludvig Holberg’s novel about Niels Klim’s journey through a subterranean world (1742) encouraged its female readers to feel at home in the spaces between fact and fiction. Holberg’s novel, along with Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1725), which demonstrated a similar preoccupation with contemporary science, is a revealing early fantasy about the imaginary exploration of alien spaces, mingled with an analysis of double standards and the social objectives behind scientific ventures. Eighteenth-century novels about scientific innovation are, therefore, shown to provide an important foil for Mary Shelley’s imaginative portrayal of a scientific hypothesis. The next chapter, written by Judith Barbour, offers detailed insight into the precise nature of the knowledge disseminated hrough the Juvenile Library? a serialised encyclopaedia published by William Godwin after 1807. Not surprisingly, the household of a writer, publisher and bookseller teemed with intellectual debates about the rationale and implications of new systems of scientific categorisation. Such discussions enthusiastically explored the Linnean order of plants al ong with other attempts to revise the long-established ‘great chain of being’, a rigid hierarchy that assigned a place to all living beings and embraced beings as diverse as mites and slugs, on the one hand, and God and his angelic 0 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall vassals, on the other. 23 Attracting young men with radical sentiments or otherwise unconventional attitudes, Godwin’s home was also a hub for discussions about the social changes made possible by the secular perspective of contemporary science, disencumbered by the crippling notions of mainstream morality. Controversies about mankind’s purpose were considered in light of, for instance, Georges Buffon’s (1707–88) accounts of the resemblances between the human physical frame and that of apes and other primates. The young Mary was, therefore, immersed into a heady intellectual climate that encouraged her to speculate about the reforming potentials of contemporary science. Percy Bysshe Shelley, an influential figure in her father’s circle of friends, was intrigued by the roaming imagination of the young Mary – so much so that the couple decided to elope in 1814. The early dialogues between the precocious child and the already established writer were to grow ever more intensive and, as Barbour argues, inspired the dramatic momentum required for transforming Mary’s fantasy about an artificially created being into a speculative drama about the consequences of contemporary science. In the late eighteenth century, the understanding and experience of space began to change in response to the accumulation of a vast bulk of new information about the geography of far-flung places. In parallel with this development, unprecedented efforts to grasp the secrets of the human mind, psyche and soul probed into the inner spaces of human existence. It goes without saying that the attempt to map and chart the phenomena of the mind could not follow equally objective principles. As Christa Knellwolf’s chapter explains, the inability to draw an objective map made it difficult to proceed. However, it also provided scope for imagining a vastness of imaginary space that reflects the minute infinities revealed by contemporary microscopes. At issue, however, are not the microscopic dimensions that will be the concern of twentieth-century microbiology, but the limitless nature of consciousness and imagination. The parallels between inner and outer space bears special salience for the setting of Frankenstein: The immense distances traversed, particularly in its narrative frame, position the novel’s eponymous hero in both an emotional and a geographic desert. The impossible spaces of the narrative and physical setting of the story, then, raise questions about whether the uncompromising realisation of ideals and absolutes is achievable for an ordinary human being. Contemporary debates on the sanctity of human life are a key concern of Frankenstein. Anita Guerrini’s chapter argues that early nineteenth-century debates about vivisection were motivated not only by the nascent sensitivity towards the sufferings of animals, but also responded to long-standing, religiously motivated attempts to ban experiments that pried into the mysteries of life – human and animal. The discovery and description of the nervous system, however, critically depended on the possibility of observing the physical locations of pain. Like Frankenstein himself, prominent scientists in the field found it difficult to cope with the gruesome aspects of vivisection and were unsure about whether they had a right to proceed with their research. Audiences were still eager to attend public Introduction 11 performances in anatomy but antivivisection debates shed important light on the contested public perception of anatomical-medical experimenters. Francois Magendie (1783–1855) – a French anatomist who regularly performed public dissections in order to demonstrate the body’s sensory functions – as a case in point, who illustrates a growing discomfort with the scientists’ wish to spy ever more deeply into the borderlines between life and death. So a further parallel between the real and fictional scientist emerges as an urgent concern of the novel, consisting of the fact that neither the real nor fictional scientist were horrified by the gruesome environment of the charnel house or suffici ently awed by the idea that a dead human body was the receptacle of a recently departed soul. Frankenstein’s creature is frequently referred to as a monster. While this trite stereotype fails to grasp the problems implicit in contemporary fantasies about the perfectibility of the human body and mind, it also ignores the fact that the monster posed enormous problems for the taxonomies of comparative anatomy, which is why teratology – the scientific explanation of the existence of monsters – emerged as an influential branch of contemporary science. Diverging significantly from the characteristics identified by received definitions of a particular species, Melinda Cooper argues that the nature and purpose of these alternative life-forms posed endless problems and questions. Were they simple variants of the normal representatives of a species, were they a sign that the health of a species had been undermined, or were they indications of special transformations waiting to manifest themselves in the imminent future? Such questions need to be raised in regard to Frankenstein’s so-called monstrous creation. Their relevance is further documented by the fact that debates about the problematic role of the monster must have occurred between the Shelleys and their friend William Lawrence (1783–1867), a leading figure in the controversy over whether the origin of life was the consequence of materialist or vitalist principles. As regards the philosophical conception of Frankenstein’s creature, the context of teratological controversies opens up a new understanding of the novel’s analysis of the origin and meaning of different forms of life. Allan K. Hunter’s focus on an evolutionary perspective leads to a very different interpretative approach, exploring the social and political implications of the creature’s life course. The evolutionary theories at issue here are those of Erasmus Darwin, whose untempered admiration for the revolutionary energies surfacing in America and France fed into his hypothetical modelling of the future state of life forms. Hunter’s essay examines the claim that Enlightenment science enabled new view of the human condition that comes into existence between a distant past and a distant future, and whose endless transformations generate cultural anxieties about the approach of a new evolutionary phase. Seen through the lens of Darwin’s revolutionary optimism and Godwin’s doctrine of perfectability, the creature is endowed with preternatural learning abilities, extreme powers of endurance and a body size that makes him dominant in any physical contest. Yet he is a lso transformable into a force of chaos and a generator of cyclic violence. His creation as a manufacturing process is thus a provocative reflection on the culture of 12 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall manufacturing innovation in England at the time. These tensions and provocations are revealed in the novel’s controversial reception, which also illustrates a growing anxiety in England about the nebulous and excessive tendencies of French thought, compared to English pragmatism. With our taken-for-granted attitude towards electricity, it is a challenge for twenty-first-century readers of Frankenstein to appreciate the imaginative potency of electrical researches in the Enlightenment period. Mary Shelley’s novel capitalizes on the dramatic cultural and psychological impact of electrical discovery as well as its immediately spectacular manifestations. Amongst her contemporaries, electricity was regarded as a life science or, more than that, as the science of life itself. Ian Jackson emphasizes that the most popular and spectacular forms of electrical experiment involved human and animal bodies. Such experiments promised to unlock forces of unlimited potential that might change the destiny of the species, effecting a transformation of human being in metaphysical as well as material terms. When unseen electrical forces were made to cause visible objects and bodies to move, or emit sparks, or to attract other objects towards them, this created a meeting point between the perceptual frameworks of science and animism. Through Galvanic experiments in which the corpses of recent gallows victims were made to dance, these forces are specifically linked with the fantasy of reanimation. The agonies of conscience experienced by Victor Frankenstein also reflect the intensity of debates surrounding researches into electricity which, from an orthodox religious point of view, were dangerously impious, because to reveal those things in creation that were hidden from the human senses was to transgress divine intention. If the Creator had wanted them to be known, He would have made them evident in the first place. Against this view, there was the Newtonian defence that the study of nature, with the purpose of revealing the workings of God to man, is essentially pious because it enables fuller human admiration of divine perfection. The unashamed atheism of the Shelley circle, and their embrace of Prometheus as the greatest of mythical heroes, prompted a move away from defensiveness to the lyrical celebration of bold discovery. However, Jackson suggests that in Frankenstein, Mary Shelley is offering a more troubled view of scientific aspiration. Joan Kirkby’s analysis of the spiritualist ideas underpinning the story of Victor Frankenstein brings up the question of what was regarded as a ‘science’ in the early nineteenth century. Mesmerism combined elements from the knowledge domains of astronomy, electricity and magnetism, with interpretative frameworks belonging to the practices of clairvoyance and spiritualism. Major philosophical thinkers such as Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) and Arthur Schopenhauer (1788– 1860) interested themselves in the presence of spirits, and many of the works of eighteenth-century scientific writers include serious commentary on the permeability of the boundary between life and death. Leading spiritualists of this time, as Kirkby points out, were also leading scientists. Emanuel Swedenborg Introduction 13 (1688–1772) was led by his sophisticated interests in anatomy and the composition of matter to enquire into the specific location of the connecting point between body and soul. In this light, the anatomical work of Frankenstein, driven by an impassioned commitment to dismantling the boundary between life and death, takes on heightened implications. The themes of the novel can also be seen as closely linked with those of Percy Shelley’s major poems, in which a view of matter itself as spirit is xpounded with powerful conviction. The culture of collecting was one of the most significant forms of public engagement with the natural sciences in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. As Christine Cheater observes, some of the tensions played out in the novel are reflections of larger cultural tensions exemplified in the design and management of collections. Victor Frankenstein’s adventures take him from the extremes of conf inement, working day and night in his domestic laboratory, to some of the wildest and most remote landscapes of the world. Similarly, the quest for scientific trophies could lead to travels around the globe but also to the experience of confinement amongst the obsessive and personalised clutter of the cabinet of curiosities. There were tensions, too, between the curiosity driven projects of the private collectors or virtuosi and the growing commitment to expertise and professional specialization, with its attendant demands for greater exclusivity in the management and accessibility of collections. Cheater compares the careers of Ashton Lever (1729–88) and John Gould (1804–81) as exemplars of this transition and the tragic personal costs it sometimes entailed, suggesting that the disastrous conclusion of Victor Frankenstein’s enterprise shares some symptomatic elements. Scientific fictions about the existence of different forms of life did not begin with Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Stories embraced in long-standing speculations about whether there are other worlds and, if so, what their inhabitants might look like, date back at least to Bernard le Bovier de Fontelle’s (1657–1757) scientific popularisation of Cartesianism. While early fantasies about the appearance of beings living outside or beneath the surface of the earth demonstrate little fear about the implications for their own world, Mary Shelley’s novel adds a decisively worrying twist to the theme. Sharing the planet with another species that is their own equivalent (or even superior) may be a prospect for which human nature is not ready, though in her later novel The Last Man, Shelley envisaged a world evacuated of the human species as a place of profound metaphysical emptiness. This work points towards a tradition of bleaker fictional renditions of the future. By the end of the nineteenth century, apocalyptic fantasies dominated the imagination of writers, such as H. G. Wells, disillusioned about the promises of science and their period’s irresponsible treatment of natural resources. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a work that stands at the beginning of such dark visions about the barbarities resulting from a science that is used in the service of megalomaniacs wishing to control the world rather than as a tool for the spread of Enlightenment ideas and values. It is time to reengage with the novel as a work 14 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall that is filled with the energies of scientific aspiration, as well as misgivings about human failure to realise it. Notes 1 Evelyn Fox Keller, Secrets of Life, Secrets of Death: Essays on Language, Gender and Science (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 49. Anne K. Mellor probably offers the most fully developed of such readings in Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (London: Routledge, 1988). See Isaac Asimov, ‘Robots, computers and fear’, Introduction to Machines That Think (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), p. 1; Bernard E. Rollin, ed. The Frankenstein Syndrome: Ethical and Social Issues in the Genetic Engineering of Animals (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995). Patricia Fara, An Entertainment for Angels (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2002), p. 22. Desmond King-Hele, Doctor of Revolution: The Life and Genius of Erasmus Darwin (London: Faber Faber, 1977). Jenny Uglow, The Lunar Men: The Friends Who Made the Future, 1730–1810 (London: Faber Faber, 2002). Erasmus Darwin, letter to Benjamin Franklin, 29 May 1787 in American Philosophical Society collection of Franklin Papers XXXV, 70; quoted in King-Hele (London: Faber Faber, 1977), p. 79. Mary Wollstonecraft, An Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, in Mary Wollstonecraft, Political Writings, ed. Janet Todd (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), p. 292. Ian Hunter, Rival Enlightenments: Civil and Metaphysical Philosophy in Early Modern Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001). For a historical background of eighteenth-century freemasonry, see Margaret Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991). For a etailed historical analysis of Illuminism, see Richard van Dulmen, Der Geheimbund der Illuminaten: Darstellung, Analyse, Dokumentation, trans. Christa Knellwolf (Stuttgart: F. Frommann, 1975), p. 159. Denis Diderot and Jean Dâ€℠¢Alembert Le Rond, eds, L’Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire raisonne des art et des sciences (Paris: Le Breton, 1751–72). For a discussion of the cultural context and objectives of the philosophes, see David Garrioch, ‘The party of the Philosophes’, in The Enlightenment World, eds Martin Fitzpartick, Peter Jones, Christa Knellwolf and Iain McCalman (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 26–41. Compare the entry for ‘Illuminati’ in the Catholic Encyclopaedia online: [accessed 10 October 2007]. Antoine Lavoisier, Traite elementaire de chimie, presente dans un ordre nouveau et d’apres les decouvertes modernes, 2 vols (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; repr. Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965). Mary Shelley, Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus: The 1818 Text (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993), p. 30. All further references are from this text and are cited parenthetically. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Introduction 15 5 Johann Weyer, De praest igiis daemonum, trans. John Shea, in Witches, Devils, and Doctors in the Renaissance (Binghamton, NY: Medieval Renaissance Texts Studies, 1991 [1583]). 16 For the details of Godwin’s study, see Lives of the Necromancers: or, An Account of the Most Eminent Persons in Successive Ages, Who Have Claimed for Themselves, or to Whom Has Been Imputed by Others, the Exercise of Magical Power (London: Frederick J. Mason, 1834). 17 Also compare Robert Darnton, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1968); and Auguste Viatte, Les sources occultes du romanticism, illuminism, theosophie, 1770–1820 (Paris: Champion, 1965). 18 John [Giovanni] Aldini, ‘An account of the late improvements in galvanism, with a series of curious and interesting experiments performed before the commissioners of the French National Institute, and repeated lately in the anatomical theaters of London’ (London: 1803). Extracts from this document available online at [accessed 10 October 2007]. 19 Erasmus Darwin, The Temple of Nature (London: J. Johnson, 1803), Canto II, iv, lines 246–51. 20 Peter Haining, The Man Who Was Frankenstein (London: Frederick Muller, 1979), pp. 56–63. 21 William Blake, Jerusalem; quoted from Literature Online [accessed 10 October 2007]. 22 William Wordsworth, The Excursion, Book 8, pp. 243 and 244; quoted from Literature Online [accessed 10 October 2007]. 23 For a historical overview of the concept, see A. O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1948). How to cite Frankenstein and Science, Papers

Explain the Strengths and Weaknesses of One or More Criminological Theories for Explaining Crime in Contemporary Britain free essay sample

A biological theory of crime proposes that physical attributes can lead an individual to criminal activities. In his publication L’Uomo Deliquente 1876, Cesare Lombroso studied the appearance and physical characteristics of Italian convicted criminals. He believed he had found evidence that a criminal brain was different from a non-criminal. He claimed that this was clearly displayed in the shape of the criminal’s face, and concluded that the criminals displayed signs of atavism (primitive features inherited from earlier stage of human development [Newburn, 2007:122-3]. Lombroso’s findings signalled the beginning of criminal profiling, as this inspired investigators to analyse a crime scene to declare exactly what kind of person the police should be looking for. Some of his recordings were that murderers had bloodshot eyes and curly hair, while sex offenders had thick lips and protruding ears [Kirby et al, 2000:586 ]. From a social point of view, this theory would imply that those born-criminal are easy to identify and can be locked up before committing a crime. These findings have also been deemed absurd and discredited because of the following reasons; his sample was unrepresentative as he did not use non-criminal control groups to establish whether atavistic features he identified were confined to the criminal population; the physical characteristics he identified may simply reflect the fact that the inmates were drawn from the poorest section of Italian society. Therefore such factors as their height or stunted growth may be as a result of poverty rather than being symbols of criminality; the theory overlooks the bright and handsome criminals [preservearticles. om what-are-the-biological-theories-of-crime]. This type of theorising neglects the idea that there is a grey area of criminality people who commit crimes but are not caught and therefore not imprisoned. Police recorded crime shows 6,468,000 cases in the United Kingdom in 2002/03. However, police recorded crime statistics are limited and do not represent the total volume of crime , because of the amount of crime that never comes to the police’s attention, referred to as ‘the dark figure’ of unrecorded crime. Langley, Pilkington and Richardson [2007:10] cite Simmons amp; Dodd who states that over 30% of offences reported to the police in 2003/03 were not recorded. Charles Goring, an English psychiatrist and philosopher, tested Lombrosos theory of â€Å"born criminal† and criticised it on the basis of his own study in which he measured the characteristics of 3,000 English convicts and a large number of non-criminals in 1913. Goring claimed that he found no evidence to support Lombroso’ theory but he was criticised for being violently prejudiced against Lombroso [Newburn, 2007:126]. However, Sheldon’s (1942) theory of somatypes (body shape) sided with Lombroso, maintaining that law-violating behaviours are determined by a person’s physical form. Sheldon distinguished between 3 main types of body build; ectomorphs meaning those who were thin and fragile and restrained; endomorph (fat) who were relaxed and sociable; then mesomorph (who were muscular). Sheldon’s principle claim was that the mesomorphs are more associated with criminal activity than the other two [Newburn, 2007:127]. As a disadvantage however, in contemporary Britain this theory has been watered down by the fact that prisoners are most likely to develop more body muscle from the rigours of hard labour while in prison. Added to this is the labelling effect; that the more muscular one is, the more likely they invite police suspicion of delinquency [Kirby et al, 2000:586]. Another biological theory bases its facts on the chromosomes that determine a person’s sex, XX in women and XY in men. Some theorists have speculated that men who have XYY chromosomes might be more aggressive and are therefore more likely to commit more crime because of the extra Y. It has been established that XYY men face a noticeably increased risk of developmental delay and learning difficulties. Their numbers are low in the general population but high in the prison population as a result of this condition. As such, it is stated that there is a small association between learning difficulties and criminal behaviour [sociology. about. com]. British geneticist Patricia Jacobs carried out a study of 197 men in a high-security mental hospital in Scotland. The study, published in the British journal Nature in 1965, showed that 3. 5 % of the men studied had the XYY genotype, 20 times higher than the normal occurrence of the defect and also had less than average intelligence. The conclusion is that XYY males are more prone criminal behaviour [compass. port. ac. uk]. The initial advantage presented by these studies is that other countries and England began allowing maternity hospitals to test for XYY genotypes in babies. A study carried out by Stanley Walzer and Park Gerald tracked the development of XYY boys, keeping a watch for aggression or mental disorder. However almost all of the research studies focused on inmates in mental hospitals and revealed more about mental illness than criminality. There are also thousands of normal and inoffensive individuals in the general population who have an extra Y chromosome [library. thinkquest. org]. Sociologists look to society for an explanation of crime and deviance rather than the biological or psychological makeup of the individual. Three major theories fall under sociology and they are; social bond theory, social learning theory and the strain theory. [Langley, Pilkington, Richardson, 2007: 34]. Travis Hirschi developed the social bond theory. In his book causes of delinquency (1969), he recorded four elements of social bonds; attachment to society, commitment to society, involvement and belief that society rules must be changed. Hirchi’s approach suggests that the weaker the bond, the greater the chances of crime being committed. With attachment, an individual who is more attached to others is less likely to become delinquent. Under commitment, an individual has invested resources and time, and fears law breaking behaviour will be detrimental to his investment. The involvement notion asserts that participation in conventional non-deviant activities keeps someone away from criminal activity. Belief entails that a person is more likely to conform to conform to social norms when he believes in them [Giddens, 2006: p. 805] The strength of this theory arises from a self-report survey of 4,000 and an analysis of school records. Pupils with strong parental attachment reported fewer delinquent acts than those with less attachment to parents. This provided support to the theory that there is more offending in cultural circles where individuals are attached to delinquent peers. However, boredom was linked to delinquency and evidence was found that high level of crime was also attributed to boys who were in work. Also, according to study of the south London town of Croydon by Terence Morris in 1957, his research indicated that the housing of high numbers of ‘problem families’ on particular estates by local councils can result in a concentration of offenders [Langley, Pilkington, Richardson, 2007: 70]. The key advantage is that however, in order to limit the opportunities for crime to occur, social control agencies employ what is known as target hardening, for example, using car steering locks, closed circuit television (CCTV) systems in city centres and public spaces. These techniques when combined with zero tolerance police help the control theorists’ argument that rather than changing the criminal, the best policy is to take practical measures to combat criminal activity [Giddens, 2006: 807]. The disadvantage is that once an area or individuals become labelled as bad, then the levels of crime in that area will increase as individuals or groups may then start acting in the way they have been labelled [historylearningsite. co. uk]. The social learning theory was developed by Albert Bandura (1996) who is famous for the Bobo doll experiment. He suggested that social learning occurs when individuals observe and imitate others’ behaviour. He identified four learning stages; attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. In the experiment Bandura had children witness a model aggressively attacking a plastic clown. The results were that 88% of the children imitated the aggressive behaviour. He also concluded that individuals that live in high crime rates areas are more likely to act violently than those who dwell in low-crime areas. [criminology. fsu. edu/crimetheory/bandura]. However critics argued that in the Bobo doll experiment, children were manipulated into responding to the aggressive movie. Many critics believed the experiment was immoral because the children were trained to be aggressive. Feshbach and R. D. Singer conducted a study that contradicted Bandura’s findings. The study showed that the violence on television allowed the viewer to relate to characters involved in the violent act. In doing so, the viewer was able to release all aggressive thoughts and feelings through relation. This leaves them less aggressive than they would have been without watching the violent television. This theory is called the Catharsis effect, where viewing violence on television leads to a decrease in aggression [criminology. fsu. edu/crimetheory/bandura]. The strain theory was developed by Robert Merton which states that people engage in deviant behaviour when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals. The deviance is the result of a strain between the goals of society, for example the American dream, and an individual’s legitimate means of achieving them. The strain produces frustration which creates a pressure to deviate, what Merton calls anomie [Haralambos and Holborn, 2008: 323]. He outlined five ways in which people would respond in the face of failure to achieve success; conformity- this would be the response of the majority, law-abiding citizens who try to achieve success by conventional, non-criminal means; innovation- Individuals would resort to crime to gain wealth. Merton believed that those in the lower social bracket usually choose this route as a way to be financially successful because their educational qualifications and their jobs provide little opportunity. As a result they succumb to pressure and turn to crime; ritualism- people in dead end jobs and have no success; rebellion- people who form a â€Å"special† group and think theirs is the correct one and have deviant approaches, for example Karl Max and Martin Luther King; retreatism- habitual drug addicts and alcoholics who are simply not bothered at all [Haralambos and Holborn, 2008: 324-5]. The 2011 summer riots in England seem to support innovation. 36. 6% of youth survey thought boredom among young people was a cause; with a fifth (20. 4%) saying there was concern about their futures and jealousy of other peoples money and possessions. [news. sky. com, 2012] The advantages of this theory are that it explains how the strain is most strongly felt by those at the bottom of the class structure. It also offers an explanation for a working class crime. It has provided developments for other sociological theories as it has been adapted to explain white collar crime. The disadvantage of the Merton theory is that it can only account for utilitarian crime (crime), ignoring gang violence, rape and graffiti [Langley, Pilkington, Richardson, 2007: 28-9] Howard Becker (1963) said that the labelling theory asserts that people act in terms of meanings and definitions of interaction situations. To illustrate his argument, he asserted that in a low- income neighbourhood, a brawl involving young people may be defined by the police as delinquents, while in a wealthy neighbourhood it may be defined as youthful high spirits. These acts are the same but assigned different meanings. Becker also points out that because society creates rules, because if a nurse gives a patient a drug under doctor’s orders, it is perfectly proper. It is when done in a way that is not publicly defined as proper that it becomes deviant† [Kirby et al, 2000:604-5]. Labelling also causes the labelled group or individuals to see themselves in terms of the label. Jock Young (1971)’s study of hippie marijuana users in Notting Hill revealed police targeted hippies because they were dirty, lazy drug users. The police action united the marijuana users and made them feel different. As a result they retreated into small subcultures and drug taking became a symbol of their difference [Haralambos and Holborn, 2008: 335-6]. The advantages of the labelling theory are that it draws attention to the importance of labelling and social reaction, which can generate deviant behaviour. This shows certain types of people are singled out for labelling. It also shows definitions of agents of social control i. e. ‘typical delinquent. [Giddens, 2006: 802]. The disadvantages are that the theory fails to explain why certain types of people are selected as likely deviants rather than others. In Britain there has been renewed emphasis on the public shaming of offenders in order to deter others, for example the naming of paedophiles in newspapers. It is suggested this labelling can actually increase offending by those determined to punish suspected offenders. In in the year 2000 one such unfortunate victim of such attacks in South Wales was actually a paediatrician rather than a paedophile [Haralambos and Holborn, 2008: 335-6]. In conclusion, I have detected that biological approaches focus on physical features and sociological theories offer social explanations for social systems and structures which direct behaviour, while the labelling theory asserts that people act in terms of meanings and definitions of interaction situations. However, the theories are often relatively silent on the large amount of white collar crime and corporate crimes. As a result, the law enforcement agencies do not feel compelled into policing this area with the amount of resources and attention it deserves. Bibliography Books Barter, J. Hope, T. Kidd, W. Kirby, M. Koubel, F. Kirton, A. Madry, N. Manning, P. amp; Triggs, K. (2000) Sociology in Perspective. Heinemann. Giddens, A. (2006) Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press. Haralambos, M. Holborn, M. (2007) Sociology Themes and Perspectives. 7th edn. Hammersmith, London: Collins. Langley, P. Pilkington, A. amp; Richardson, J (2007) Sociology in Focus A2 Level. Causeway Press. Newburn, T. (2007) Criminology. Devon: William Publishing Website Anon. (2011) Biological Theories of Crime [ Online]. Available at: http://www. preservearticles. com/2012050131523/what-are-the-biological-theories-of-crime. html. [Accessed on 20 April 2013]. Genetic Screaning [Online]. Available at: http://library. thinkquest. org/17109/screening. htm. [Accessed on 9 May 2013]. Skynews (2012) Riots to comes back [Online]. Available at: http://news. sky. com/story/968285/summer-riots-could-be-repeated-survey-warns [ Accessed on 8 May 2013] Birmingham Mail (2011) Car crime hotspots revealed [online]. Available at:

The effect of temperature on a squash ball Essay Example

The effect of temperature on a squash ball Paper I did a preliminary experiment to see if my method would work and if there were any problems with the way I will conduct my experiment. Preliminary Results Temperature (i C) Distanced Bounced (Cm) 90 81 40 68 0 20 Factors affecting my experiment If I use different squash balls of different elasticity it will affect the bounciness of the ball.   If I use different surfaces for the ball to bounce on, I may get different results because different surfaces absorb energy better than others.   If the temperature increases, then in theory the bounciness should increase. This is because the atoms have more energy so theyll move faster; theyll have more kinetic energy inside the ball. This creates more pressure making the ball harder and bouncier. I increase the height I drop the ball from, the gravitational potential energy increases. The ball will have more energy so the bounciness increases. This formula shows how to work out the amount of energy the ball has at each height: Gravitational Potential Energy=Mass x Gravitational Strength (10N) x Height   The older the ball is, the less elastic it is. Obtaining Evidence i Temperature of the ball Distanced Bounced (Cm) 1st Test 2nd Test 3rd Test Mean Rounded Mean have carried out my plan and have used my equipment precisely to observe and measure the rate of reaction to a good level of accuracy. I have taken a sufficient number of accurate results and have recorded them in a table. I dont need to repeat any readings as none of them look to be anomalous. I made no changes to my plan but carried out a preliminary to make sure I wouldnt have to make any changes half way through the experiment. I made sure I was wearing safety goggles while I was heating the water with a Bunsen burner to protect my eyes. I stood up throughout the experiment to lower the risk of injury. When I took the squash ball out of the beaker I used tongs so I didnt burn my hands. Analysing Evidence. We will write a custom essay sample on The effect of temperature on a squash ball specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The effect of temperature on a squash ball specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The effect of temperature on a squash ball specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Ive plotted my results onto a line graph and a clear pattern is seen. As the temperature of the ball is increased, the distance the ball bounces is also increased. The squash ball starts to bounce higher and higher after every 10 degrees, but towards the end the distance of the ball doesnt increase as much than the first few points on the graph. This can be shown by looking at the gradient at the beginning of the graph and at the end. At the beginning, the gradient is 1. 23, towards the end the gradient is 0. 44, this shows that its decreased which means theres less difference between the results towards the end. This means that after a while the ball isnt affected as much by temperature. In my investigation I found out that temperature does affect the bounciness of the squash ball, like I said in my prediction. I thought this would happen because as the temperature increases the pressure inside also increases making the ball harder and bouncier. The pressure increases because the atoms are moving around with more force and faster because they have more energy. My results back this up. I dont have any extreme anomalies but my second point on the graph is a bit anomalous. This could be or a number of reasons due to human error. For example I might not have seen the distance the ball bounced correctly, or I might have dropped the ball a little bit lower than the other times. Evaluation The evidence I obtained was good for the simplicity of my investigation. I think the way in which my investigation was carried out was effective but could have been more accurate. For example, I carried out all of it. If I used machines or computers it would have been a lot more accurate. If I had the equipment to this I would have a machine drop the squash ball from an exact point and use either or video camera or light motion sensor to get the exact measurement of the bounce. This would be a lot more accurate than my own eyesight. But saying that, my results were very accurate without machines and I can see this by how Ive plotted them on the graph. They were easily accurate enough to make a firm conclusion on that increasing the temperature increases the bounciness of the ball. There werent any results that didnt fit into the main pattern. I think this is because I took great care while carrying out the experiment. There are many other experiments I could do to extend the work Ive done. For example I could look at all the other factors that affect the bounciness which I mentioned in my plan. I think an interesting one would be to change the material the ball lands on, to see which material absorbs the most energy.

census essays

census essays The plan for the 2000 census will make an unprecendent effort to contact every living person living in the United States and will contact more people than in any previous census. With statistical methods for nonrespondents, the Census 2000 will be the most complete accounting of the U.S. population ever. Statistical Sampling should not be a partisan issue . It is an American issue. It's about making sure that every American really and literally counts. It's about gathering fair and accurate information that we absolutely have to have if we are going to determine who we are and what we have to do to prepare all our people for the 21st century. We do a census every 10 years. Even the first time, when Thomas Jefferson sent federal marshals on horseback, we relied on the system of going to the households to count these people (Riche 34). As the years continued on and the population grew, It began to be more time consuming and progressively more expensive. In 1970, we started counting people by mail. We asked that Americans fill out the census forms and then send them back for processing (Riche 34). This is the current method in use. We know that the census missed 8 million Americans living in inner-cities and in remote rural areas in 1990 (Clinton par.3 ). We also know that we double-counted 4 million Americans, many of whom had their own home (Riche 34). The census missed 482,738 in the state of Texas; 66,748 of them in Houston alone (Clinton par. 3). With the current method of the census, the problem are not getting solved. Congress concluded in 1990 that the census failed on two grounds: It cost too much and measured two few people (Riche 35). Inaccurate information causes some of the biggest problems. For example, the United way recieves generous grants for very wealthy individuals. If the census is inaccurate, then it has an indirect effect on private ...

ApushRevolution of 1800

Previous presidents had done what they could to stay neutral in foreign battles and conflicts, but Thomas Jefferson took initiative and this is also present in the XYZ affairs with France. Jefferson brought the country into its real first international involvement. With judiciary, the real revolutionary happening of the time period was with the Marbury vs. Madison case when the Supreme Court was given the power of judicial review of the laws and actions by the federal government. It allowed for the Supreme Court to rule federal laws invalid if they conflicted with the Constitution. Politically, Jefferson believed in strict interpretation of the Constitution unlike his predecessors. He bought the Louisiana Purchase which the Constitution did not fully allow him to do. Under Federalist views, the economy of the United States was looking to be increasingly more urban with a shift from agricultural ways. With Thomas Jefferson being elected into office, he hoped that America would maintain a strict agrarian economy with crops being the top export to foreign countries. He wanted Americans to stay a primarily rural-living nation with farming the main aspect of the economy. The election of 1800 was also considered a revolution because politics changed hands from Federalists with strict views on centralization and creating a stronger national government to Republicans with the hopes of creating strong state legislatures and a stricter foreign policy where manufacturing was less important. The succession of Republicans contributed to it being called a revolution. ApushRevolution of 1800 Previous presidents had done what they could to stay neutral in foreign battles and conflicts, but Thomas Jefferson took initiative and this is also present in the XYZ affairs with France. Jefferson brought the country into its real first international involvement. With judiciary, the real revolutionary happening of the time period was with the Marbury vs. Madison case when the Supreme Court was given the power of judicial review of the laws and actions by the federal government. It allowed for the Supreme Court to rule federal laws invalid if they conflicted with the Constitution. Politically, Jefferson believed in strict interpretation of the Constitution unlike his predecessors. He bought the Louisiana Purchase which the Constitution did not fully allow him to do. Under Federalist views, the economy of the United States was looking to be increasingly more urban with a shift from agricultural ways. With Thomas Jefferson being elected into office, he hoped that America would maintain a strict agrarian economy with crops being the top export to foreign countries. He wanted Americans to stay a primarily rural-living nation with farming the main aspect of the economy. The election of 1800 was also considered a revolution because politics changed hands from Federalists with strict views on centralization and creating a stronger national government to Republicans with the hopes of creating strong state legislatures and a stricter foreign policy where manufacturing was less important. The succession of Republicans contributed to it being called a revolution.

Alchol and its effects on health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Alchol and its effects on health - Essay Example Binge drinking has become rampant in many parts of the world including Europe (Picture-1). According to a study by Anderson & Baumberg (2006), 55 million adults are estimated to drink at harmful levels in the Europe. Harmful consumption of alcohol means more than 40g of alcohol i.e. 4 drinks a day for men and over 20g i.e. 2 drinks a day by women (Anderson & Baumberg, 2006). To understand the effects of alcohol on the health of humans, it is important to first understand the metabolism of alcohol. The cell membranes of human body are highly permeable to alcohol. Once alcohol is absorbed from the stomach, it reaches every tissue in the body. It is mainly metabolized in the liver. The mode of metabolism is oxidation. The first step in the oxidation is conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde and this is catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase. During this process, NADH (NAD, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is released. The acetaldehyde is further oxidized to acetic acid which then enters the citric acid cycle and metabolized to carbondioxide and water. NADH is used up in the conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid, in the synthesis of lipids and in the electron transport chain (Paton, 2005). Most of the damage to cells caused by ethanol is due to acetaldehyde and NADH. Acetaldehyde causes damage due to immune response and increased NADH causes altered NADH/N AD ratio leading to increased oxygen consumption and hypermetabolic state (Tome & Lucey, 2004). The effects of alcohol change over time. This is known as biphasic effect. The side effects depend on the level of intoxication which is again dependent on many other factors like the amount and circumstances of consumption, whether taken before or after meals and also the hydration status of the body. Consumption of alcohol after a heavy meal does not produce much intoxication while consuming on empty stomach leads to increased side

Race and the Death Penalty Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Race and the Death Penalty - Research Paper Example In every modern society, there are authorities to impose punishments on wrongdoers and the nature of authorities varies with the kind of offenses. For example, a child who breaks the rules of a family at home is punished by his parents or the other elderly members. But, in the society when someone gets involved in illegal activities is punished by the criminal judicial system. There are two major reasons for inflicting punishment on criminals: one belief is that it is fair that people who break the law be punished according to the level of his offence, and the second belief is that punishments will discourage offenders from repeating their wrongdoings in the future and will also put fear in the minds of others from doing wrong. These two beliefs are universal in every human society. The debate surrounding the necessity of punishments including capital punishment, therefore, does not focus on the â€Å"basic principles but on the fairness, appropriateness, and effectiveness of specif ic punishments for specific offenses.†1 Because of the irrevocable nature of the death penalty, it is the most criticized form of punishment. In the United States, racial prejudices were pervasive and played an important role in the decision of the jury in regard to death penalties as â€Å"the color of a defendant and victim’s skin plays a crucial and unacceptable role in deciding who receives the death penalty in America.†2 It has been seen that an offender is more likely to get the death penalty if the murdered victim is a white man. This paper focuses on the racial prejudices surrounding death penalty in the United States. Before studying the death penalty from the angle of racial prejudices it is important to note that racism is a major part of the American society.

Arthur Miller Essay Example for Free

Arthur Miller Essay The theme of morals and guilt is explored by the characterization of John Proctor. Proctor is portrayed as being around the age of thirty and a well-respected farmer in the towns community. He is described as the kind of man- powerful of body, even-tempered, and not easily led. From these descriptions, we recognize that he is a strong, calm individual who is quite cynical. As soon as Proctor appears in the play we see that he is very much in conflict with himself due to the terrible secret he conceals within the dark and forbidding chambers of his heart. A history of sin, which goes against every moral fibre of his body and the society in which he dwells. He is a sinner, a sinner not only against the moral fashion but against his own vision of decent conduct. John Proctor is guilty of committing adultery with the young Abigail Williams while she was serving as a servant in his household and this has a great effect on his conscience. Proctors conscience eats away at him throughout the play as it manifests itself into his relationship with people, especially his wife, Elizabeth. This is presented when Elizabeth states: I do not judge you. The magistrate sits in your heart that judges you. I never thought you but a good man, John- only somewhat bewildered. Here we see the idea of morality being reflected on a personal level, or Proctors conception of himself. He conceives himself as a blatant sinner because of his raw deeds, being his lechery. I blush for my sin, he admits to his wife. Overall, through the characterization of John Proctor the theme morals and guilt is presented and from this we see that his perception of right and wrong are decided by his own vision of decent conduct. Characterization is essential to the exploration and development of themes in The Crucible by Arthur Miller. The characterization of Rebecca Nurse explores the theme of evil. Abigail Williams explores the themes of evil as well as the power of fear and John Proctor explores the theme of morals and guilt. All these characters and many more help develop the themes within The Crucible.

What Women Most Desire Essay -- Essays Papers

What Women Most Desire In "The Wife Of Bath’s Tale", women most desire sovereignty over men in relationships. In other words, the power to have dominance over men is the one thing women most desire. I agree with the ideas that in relationship women wish to be dominant over the opposite sex. The only way such power is earned or give is when the man is in a situation where the woman must bail him out of trouble. Women have the ability to get what they want, when they want it. Chaucer portrays the Wife of bath as the dominant person in her marriages. She looks at men as her trinkets to be used and played with. She moves from one man to another, always looking for more. The Wife of Bath is a control freak, wanting to have sex when she desires it and with whom she desires. Her tale discusses a knight desperate for an to the question, what do women most desire? The answer is in the hands of an old lady who is described as an ugly, horrid fowl creature. In return for the answer the decrepit woman wants the knight to marry her. The knight has no choice and marries the hag. The knight was truly the one with no power and the hag was holding all the cards. The knight is in a lose-lose situation without the answer he was to be beheaded. The knight repulsed and angry married the hag. He was probably thinking that death by decapitation might have been the better than to live with the same old, ugly woman for the rest of his god-forsaken life. The knight in the tale had no choice but to submit to the sovereignty of the old hag. If the knight was a little smarter and did his homework in trying to say, "Hey, how does this old hag know the answer to what women most desire? She’s probably never been with a man before!" The knight was ... ...sed on the information given in the tale, I feel that women don’t desire to have power over their husbands. However, I do feel that women desire to have power, just not total power over their husbands like the Wife feels. I feel that women like to have an equal balance of power with men. I do not think that the Wife sees this as being possible. She seems to be so angry at men, because of the bad experiences that she has with her five husbands, and she doesn’t seem to want to change her belief in the fact that women have so much power. She actually demonstrates the power that women have towards her five husbands. She always seemed to get her way with them. Sadly, in today’s society, women are still not given the proper credit they deserve. It is shameful that women don’t receive equal representation in many situations. This is a topic that is still debated to this day.

Zoe’s Tale PART I Chapter Five

There was a tap on my door, a rat-a-tat that I gave Hickory to use when I was nine, when I made it a secret member of my secret club. I made Dickory a secret member of an entirely different secret club. Same with Mom, Dad and Babar. I was all about the secret clubs when I was nine, apparently. I couldn't even tell you what the name of that secret club was now. But Hickory still used the knock whenever my bedroom door was closed. â€Å"Come in,† I said. I was standing by my bedroom window. Hickory came in. â€Å"It's dark in here,† it said. â€Å"That's what happens when it's late and the lights are out,† I said. â€Å"I heard you walking about,† Hickory said. â€Å"I came to see if you needed anything.† â€Å"Like a warm glass of milk?† I said. â€Å"I'm fine, Hickory. Thank you.† â€Å"Then I'll leave you,† Hickory said, backing out. â€Å"No,† I said. â€Å"Come here a minute. Look.† Hickory walked over to stand next to me at the window. He looked where I pointed, to two figures in the road in front of our house. Mom and Dad. â€Å"She has been out there for some time,† Hickory said. â€Å"Major Perry joined her a few minutes ago.† â€Å"I know,† I said. â€Å"I saw him walk out.† I heard her walk out, too, about an hour earlier; the squeaking of the springs on the screen door had gotten me out of bed. I hadn't been sleeping, anyway. Thinking about leaving Huckleberry and colonizing somewhere new was keeping my brain up, and then made me pace around. The idea of leaving was sinking in. It was making me twitchier than I thought it would. â€Å"You know about the new colony?† I asked Hickory. â€Å"We do,† Hickory said. â€Å"Lieutenant Sagan informed us earlier this evening. Dickory also filed a request to our government for more information.† â€Å"Why do you call them by their rank?† I asked Hickory. My brain was looking for tangents at the moment, it seemed, and this was a good one. â€Å"Mom and Dad. Why don't you call them ‘Jane' and ‘John' like everyone else?† â€Å"It's not appropriate,† Hickory said. â€Å"It's too familiar.† â€Å"You've lived with us for seven years,† I said. â€Å"You might be able to risk a little familiarity.† â€Å"If you wish us to call them ‘John' and ‘Jane,' then we will do so,† Hickory said. â€Å"Call them what you want,† I said. â€Å"I'm just saying that if you want to call them by their first names, you could.† â€Å"We will remember that,† Hickory said. I doubted there would be a change in protocol anytime soon. â€Å"You'll be coming with us, right?† I asked, changing the subject. â€Å"To the new colony.† I hadn't assumed that Hickory and Dickory would not be joining us, which when I thought about it might not have been a smart assumption. â€Å"Our treaty allows it,† Hickory said. â€Å"It will be up to you to decide.† â€Å"Well, of course I want you to come,† I said. â€Å"We'd just as soon leave Babar behind than not take you two.† â€Å"I am happy to be in the same category as your dog,† Hickory said. â€Å"I think that came out wrong,† I said. Hickory held up a hand. â€Å"No,† it said. â€Å"I know you did not mean to imply Dickory and I are like pets. You meant to imply Babar is part of your household. You would not leave without him.† â€Å"He's not just part of the household,† I said. â€Å"He's family. Slobbery, sort of dim family. But family. You're family, too. Weird, alien, occasionally obtrusive family. But family.† â€Å"Thank you, Zoe,† Hickory said. â€Å"You're welcome,† I said, and suddenly felt shy. Conversations with Hickory were going weird places today. â€Å"That's why I asked about you calling my parents by rank, you know. It's not a usual family thing.† â€Å"If we are truly part of your family, then it is safe to say it's not a usual family,† Hickory said. â€Å"So it would be hard to say what would be usual for us.† This got a snort from me. â€Å"Well, that's true,† I said. I thought for a moment. â€Å"What is your name, Hickory?† I asked. â€Å"Hickory,† it said. â€Å"No, I mean, what was your name before you came to live with us,† I said. â€Å"You had to have been named something before I named you Hickory. And Dickory, too, before I named it that.† â€Å"No,† it said. â€Å"You forget. Before your biological father, Obin did not have consciousness. We did not have a sense of self, or the need to describe ourselves to ourselves or to others.† â€Å"That would make it hard to do anything with more than two of you,† I said. â€Å"Saying ‘hey, you' only goes so far.† â€Å"We had descriptors, to help us in our work,† Hickory said. â€Å"They were not the same as names. When you named Dickory and me, you gave us our true names. We became the first Obin to have names at all.† â€Å"I wish I had known that at the time,† I said, after I took this in. â€Å"I would have given you names that weren't from a nursery rhyme.† â€Å"I like my name,† Hickory said. â€Å"It's popular among other Obin as well. ‘Hickory' and ‘Dickory' both.† â€Å"There are other Obin Hickorys,† I said. â€Å"Oh, yes,† Hickory said. â€Å"Several million, now.† I had no possible intelligible response to that. I turned my attention back to my parents, who were still standing in the road, entwined. â€Å"They love each other,† Hickory said, following my gaze. I glanced back at it. â€Å"Not really where I was expecting the conversation to go, but okay,† I said. â€Å"It makes a difference,† Hickory said. â€Å"In how they speak to each other. How they communicate with each other.† â€Å"I suppose it does,† I said. Hickory's observation was an understatement, actually. John and Jane didn't just love each other. The two of them were nuts for each other, in exactly the sort of way that's both touching and embarrassing to a teenage daughter. Touching because who doesn't want their parents to love each other, right down to their toes? Embarrassing because, well. Parents. Not supposed to act like goofs about each other. They showed it in different ways. Dad was the most obvious about it, but I think Mom felt it more intensely than he did. Dad was married before; his first wife died back on Earth. Some part of his heart was still with her. No one else had any claim on Jane's heart, though. John had all of it, or all of it that was supposed to belong to your spouse. No matter how you sliced it, though, there's nothing either of them wouldn't do for each other. â€Å"That's why they're out here,† I said to Hickory. â€Å"In the road right now, I mean. Because they love each other.† â€Å"How so?† Hickory asked. â€Å"You said it yourself,† I said. â€Å"It makes a difference in how they communicate.† I pointed again to the two of them. â€Å"Dad wants to go and lead this colony,† I said. â€Å"If he didn't, he would have just said no. It's how he works. He's been moody and out of sorts all day because he wants it and he knows there are complications. Because Jane loves it here.† â€Å"More than you or Major Perry,† Hickory said. â€Å"Oh, yeah,† I said. â€Å"It's where she's been married. It's where she's had a family. Huckleberry is her homeworld. He'd say no if she doesn't give him permission to say yes. So that's what she's doing, out there.† Hickory peered out again at the silhouettes of my parents. â€Å"She could have said so in the house,† it said. I shook my head. â€Å"No,† I said. â€Å"Look how she's looking up. Before Dad came out, she was doing the same thing. Standing there and looking up at the stars. Looking for the star our new planet orbits, maybe. But what she's really doing is saying good-bye to Huckleberry. Dad needs to see her do it. Mom knows that. It's part of the reason she's out there. To let him know she's ready to let this planet go. She's ready to let it go because he's ready to let it go.† â€Å"You said it was part of the reason she's out there,† Hickory said. â€Å"What's the other part?† â€Å"The other part?† I asked. Hickory nodded. â€Å"Oh. Well. She needs to say good-bye for herself, too. She's not just doing it for Dad.† I watched Jane. â€Å"A lot of who she is, she became here. And we may never get back here. It's hard to leave your home. Hard for her. I think she's trying to find a way to let it go. And that starts by saying good-bye to it.† â€Å"And you?† Hickory said. â€Å"Do you need to say good-bye?† I thought about it for a minute. â€Å"I don't know,† I admitted. â€Å"It's funny. I've already lived on four planets. Well, three planets and a space station. I've been here longest, so I guess it's my home more than any of the rest of them. I know I'll miss some of the things about it. I know I'll miss some of my friends. But more than any of that†¦ I'm excited. I want to do this. Colonize a new world. I want to go. I'm excited and nervous and a little scared. You know?† Hickory didn't say anything to this. Outside the window, Mom had walked away a little from Dad, and he was turning to head back into the house. Then he stopped and turned back to Mom. She held out her hand to him. He came to her, took it. They began to walk down the road together. â€Å"Good-bye, Huckleberry,† I said, whispering the words. I turned away from the window and let my parents have their walk.

Oxford Insurance

Without proper management, it is easy for employees to slack off and they may lose their sight of the company goal. If we look at Herbage's two factor theory, you can see that Oxford Insurance Services is lacking some factors that are Important In Job satisfaction and motivation In employees. Challenging work, responsibility and rewards are part of the Intrinsic motivators that attribute to an Individual's sense of satisfaction with their work. It doesn't seem as though there are specific numbers that are set for each person, rather, just numbers that the company as a whole need to make.They could have dad specific attainable goals for each broker so they all have something specific to work towards. Stuart could have also came up with competitions within the group with rewards, such as a bonus. The only reward that they had was casual Friday. Although this is a step, there is not much incentive for the brokers to work hard. Many of the emails started with bad news and letting everyon e know that they are not reaching their goal, this is news and information that they are probably already away of.This sets the mood for the rest of the email. Some of the e-mails were also very short and seemed Impersonal, such as the ones to Mary. It states that Mary Is the type of person who appreciates going straight to business but the emails from Stuart is highly motivating. You don't get the sense that Stuart really cares about her. When she was doing well, Stuart emailed her telling her that she had a good month and that she would not hear from him about that for another 90 days. This does not give her any incentive to continue to work hard.If we fast forward to September when the numbers were falling short, Mary receives an email from Michael telling her that the holiday weekend is over and that she needs to start paying attention to the numbers. We thought this e-mail seemed very rude and disrespectful. Respect Is very important in motivation and If Mary does not feel that she is receiving the respect she deserves then that will show In her work. It also doesn't help the situation that Michael Is half the age of Mary. In Broom's expectancy theory, It states that people will behave a certain way because they think it will lead them to a desired outcome.Stuart and Michael is not giving the Question 2. The case suggests that Mary feels De-energize. Why might that be? Mary was lacking motivation because she was not getting the desired support from ere team. She felt that the staff was not very customer focused whereas she wanted to build good and trustworthy relationships with her customers by providing them better services. Also, there were personality and age differences between Mary and her clerical staff that had a negative impact on their teamwork. Another reason why Mary felt De-energize was because of differences in motivational value.It can be inferred from the case that Mary had a high focus on extrinsic value of motivation. She Joined Oxfords b ecause of high raise and a promise to achieve self-actualization. However, through all the motivational memos, it is evident that rewards were mostly non-monetary benefits. Employees were either praised verbally or would have a chance to wear casual clothes on Friday. There were hardly any incentives like performance-based bonuses etc. Moreover, Mary felt that Stuart was very aggressive with achieving the targeted numbers and was not giving her enough free hands to accomplish her goal of having repeat customers by building trust. . How else might Stuart and Michael foster motivation among the 0. 1. S. Brokers? Identifying and determining ways to motivate employees is vital to every business. A motivated employee in a workplace defines a highly productive staff that will help achieve common goals and objectives of the business. While not every employee will be able to get motivated by similar things, hence, Stuart and Michael should first develop a motivational strategy that includes understanding the difference of what motivates their employees.It is key essential to determine what really drives the majority of their employees so that the company can reach the highest performance. This motivational employee strategy must also include the process of developing orgasm that will eventually motivate employees greatly while also retain the best employee of the business. Therefore, Stuart and Michael can apply the relationship between Measles Need Hierarchy and Herrings Two-Factor Theory.Moscow postulated that every single individual has five basic needs that constitutes the most basic need to the highest needs that will enable managers to understand the value of their employee satisfaction level of motivation. Although it seems that 0. 1. S brokers express self-actualization and esteem regularly, it would be more effective for Stuart and Michael to constantly provide training sessions that will rate more rooms for on-going development for self-actualization. In add ition, it is always better for Stuart and Michael to not Just boost their employees self-esteem by email, buttoner of a direct approach of face-to-face.A direct approach like lunch or dinner invitation may result in a very effective way as a sense of distinct recognition. Not only that it will establish stronger relationship by interaction and affiliating with colleagues, but this may also offer a sense of â€Å"belongingness† within the company. It is very interesting to notice that Mary had been the only one who receive the most or at least direct encouragement. However, it would be helpful if Stuart and Michael discouragement from other employees in accordance to the given task.In terms of giving instructions and motivational messages, this may appear confusing and repetitive on the e-mail, thus, supervision division between Stuart and Michael can be differentiated so that all employees understand and fully aware on instructions. Therefore, it is very important to define a better structure of communication in assigning tasks for their employees with detailed measurement of key performance indicator. This will be very effective for every employees to keep up with their course f action achieve the target and allowing themselves to measure their own accountability or work progress.This key performance indicator (KIP) may also leads to reward systems or individual incentives as described in Herrings Two-Factory Theory under Hygiene Factor on salary. This incentives and reward system should also be diversified all across department without any differences. All age groups should receive equal value from this incentives and rewards. Also, this will indirectly educate employee to understand the expectancy theory where extra effort that shows great performance will lead to valuable outcomes.